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Mycorrhizal fungi are very diverse, including those that produce truffle-like fruiting bodies. Truffle-like fungi are hypogeous and sequestrate (produced below-ground, with an enclosed hymenophore) and rely on animal consumption, mainly by mammals, for spore dispersal. This dependence links mycophagous mammals to mycorrhizal diversity and, assuming truffle-like fungi are important components of mycorrhizal communities, to plant nutrient cycling and ecosystem health. These links are largely untested as currently little is known about mycorrhizal fungal community structure and its dependence on mycophagous mammals. We quantified the mycorrhizal fungal community in the north-east Australian woodland, including the portion interacting with ten species of mycophagous mammals. The study area is core habitat of an endangered fungal specialist marsupial, Bettongia tropica, and as such provides baseline data on mycorrhizal fungi-mammal interactions in an area with no known mammal declines. We examined the mycorrhizal fungi in root and soil samples via high-throughput sequencing and compared the observed taxa to those dispersed by mycophagous mammals at the same locations. We found that the dominant root-associating ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa (> 90% sequence abundance) included the truffle-like taxa Mesophellia, Hysterangium and Chondrogaster. These same taxa were also present in mycophagous mammalian diets, with Mesophellia often dominating. Altogether, 88% of truffle-like taxa from root samples were shared with the fungal specialist diet and 52% with diets from generalist mammals. Our data suggest that changes in mammal communities, particularly the loss of fungal specialists, could, over time, induce reductions to truffle-like fungal diversity, causing ectomycorrhizal fungal communities to shift with unknown impacts on plant and ecosystem health.

Cortinarius and Hysterangium species are a dominant component of the macrofungi in eucalypt forests of Western Australia, and their hyphae occupy 10 % of the soil surface area. Anatomical studies of jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm.) and karri (E. diversicolor F. Muell) roots collected in association with hyphae of Cortinarius globuliformis Boug., C. ochraceus Clel. and Hysterangium inflatum Rodway showed mycorrhizal structures with mantles one to five cells thick and Hartig nets penetrating to the hypodermis. These superficial ectomycorrhizas were similar in size to those of non-colonized feeder roots and lacked the expanded cortex and broad mantle of pyramidal ectomycorrhizas formed by Laccaria laccata (Scop, ex Fr.) Berk. & Br. Colonized host roots responded with polyphenol accumulation in the epidermis/hypodermis and lignification of the outer cortex for both the superficial and pyramidal types.

Nonstaple food is a food resource which sole consumption does not allow themaintenance of regular physiological functions, thus constituting a minor portion ofan individual's diet. Many primates consume nonstaple food such as meat, insects,and fungi. Hypotheses on the dietary importance of nonstaple food include its roleas fallback food and as source of specific nutrients. We tested these two hypothesesby investigating mycophagy (i.e., the consumption of fungi) in a population of wildbonobos in the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, DRC. Specifically, we examined therelationship between fungus consumption and various factors relevant to bonobofeeding ecology (i.e., fruit abundance and the consumption of other food types).Additionally, we measured the deviation from linear travel when bonobos searchedfor fungi to evaluate the nature of fungus consumption (e.g., opportunistic or tar-geted). Lastly, we examined the nutritional content of the major fungus speciesconsumed (Hysterangium bonobo) to test whether this food item was potentiallyconsumed as source of specific nutrients. We found that bonobos spent a higherproportion of their time feeding on fungi when fruit abundance was higher, in-dicating that fungi were not consumed as a fallback food. Moreover, bonobos de-viated from linear travel when visiting fungus patches more than observed whenvisiting fruit patches, suggesting that they actively sought out fungi. Lastly, initialanalyses suggest that H. bonobo samples contained high concentration of sodium.Collectively, these results suggest that subterranean fungi appear to be attractivefood source to Kokolopori bonobos, and that mycophagy may serve to supplementnutrients, like sodium, in bonobo diet.

Many animals have been shown to eat fungi and most truffle-like fungi depend on animals for spore dispersal via mycophagy. Although these interactions are widespread, they are understudied in many habitats. In this study, we show that bonobos (

The introduction of ectomycorrhizal fungi along with the introduced ectomycorrhizal plants is rarely considered at the ecosystem level. In Brazil, the Pampa biome is the dominant ecosystem in the Rio Grande do Sul State, predominantly with pastoral management but intensively planted with non-native trees over the last century. Sporocarps of ectomycorrhizal and putative ectomycorrhizal fungi were collected in Pampa biome native forest vegetation and plantation forests during the period 2009–2013, with an emphasis on plantations of eucalypts and pines. Morphological analysis and molecular markers were used to identify collected sporocarps. A total of 60 different taxa were collected, mainly fitting into Australasian ectomycorrhizal fungi lineages. Among collections, two turned out to be saprotrophic species from Amanita belonging to the subsect. Vittadiniae. The ectomycorrhizal fungi reported here showed that some co-introduced lineages are frequent co-invaders in the Brazilian Pampa biome with alien ectomycorrhizal trees, especially /descolea, /hysterangium, /laccaria, /pisolithus-scleroderma lineages. No ectomycorrhizal sporocarps were found in either plantation forest or in native forest sites and no novel associations were observed between native ectomycorrhizal fungal species and introduced plants. All ectomycorrhizal fungi co-introduced in the Brazilian Pampa were recorded with plant species of Australian or North American origin. The study has raised additional questions regarding the distribution, ecology and taxonomy of fungi from the Brazilian Pampa biome.

Hysterangium basidiomata were collected associated with Coccoloba alnifolia and C. laevis (Polygonaceae), in the Guaribas Biological Reserve in the Atlantic rainforest, of northeastern Brazil during the rainy seasons of 2012–2013. Based on its unique morphological and molecular traits, this new taxon is described as Hysterangium atlanticum sp. nov. The most prominent morphological characters that separate H. atlanticum from other close relatives are the large size of the basidiomata, the white peridium that rapidly turns greyish-orange to pale-red where bruised or exposed to air, and the ellipsoid to suboblong spores with a minutely verrucose surface. Molecular analyses of the LSU, SSU, atp6, and EF-1α markers were done. The analyses of the concatenated atp6–EF-1α matrix confirmed the placement of the new species in the /hysterangium lineage. Moreover, at the infra-generic level, Hysterangium atlanticum sp. nov. forms a sister clade with Hysterangium sp. from Dicymbe forests located in neighboring Guyana. Moreover, the ectomycorrhizae (EcM) formed by H. atlanticum and roots of Coccoloba species was confirmed, based on identical ITS nrDNA sequences obtained from basidiomata and EcM root tissues. The main conspicuous features of the EcM are: a well-developed plectenchimatous mantle, the ramarioid, abundant emanating hyphae with clamps and covered with crystals, the presence of oleoacanthocystidia, and the whitish rhizomorphs. This is the first report of a Hysterangium species forming EcM with native members of Coccoloba spp. in South America., This work was supported by CAPES (scholarships No PDSE 99999.004997/2014-00 to the senior author), and also co-financed by the Brazil – Slovenia bilateral project (BI-BR/11-13-005(SRA) / 490648/2010-0 (CNPq)) and the Research Programme Forest Biology, Ecology and Technology (P4-0107) of the Slovenian Research Agency. IGB and MPM thanks to CNPq project PVE 407474/2013-7 and EN CONICET for financial support.

The hyphae of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota are divided into compartments by the cross-walls (septa). In mushroom-forming fungi, members of subphylla Pezizomycotina O.E. Erikss. & Winka (Ascomycota) and Agaricomycotina Doweld (Basidiomycota), the septa are associated with specific intracellular structures, which play a role in maintaining the integrity of hyphae in case of injury but also in cell differentiation (Webster & Weber 2007, Moore et al. 2011). In basidiomycetes, these structures may also be involved in certain intracellular processes and the formation of sporocarps (Van Peer et al. 2010, Moore et al. 2011). In this fungal group they are the reticulum-connected and -derived membranous structures called septal pore caps (SPC) or parenthesomes, associated with a dolipore (Moore 1985, 1996, van Driel 2007). The pores may also be occluded by a range of materials of different form. The septal-pore-associated structures may differ considerably between species of different evolutionary lineages. This quality was used as a differentiating factor in the taxonomy at both species and higher-order levels (Lutzoni et al. 2004, McLaughlin et al. 2009).

Thirteen species are transferred to Cortinarius, either as new combinations: C. atratus (≡ Hysterangium atratum), C. cribbiae (≡ Hymenogaster cribbiae), C. canarius (≡ Dermocybe canaria), C. kula (≡ Dermocybe kula), C. musisporus (≡ Quadrispora musispora), C. niphophilus (≡ Protoglossum niphophilum), C. oblongisporus (≡ Hymenogaster oblongisporus), and C. tubercularis (≡ Quadrispora tubercularis); or as replacement names, when the basionym epithet was proccupied: C.olens (=Hymenogaster aromaticus Velen.) C. oleosus (≡ Hysterangium viscidum), C. rubroviolaceus (≡ Hymenogaster purpureum), and C. subviolaceus (≡ Hymenogaster violaceus). The illegitimate Cortinarius mastoideus Gasparini is renamed as C. acutipapillatus.

Hysterangium colossum sp. nov., with extraordinarily large basidiomata for the genus, is described from dry Eucalyptus woodlands in the Australian Capital Territory and southeastern New South Wales. It typically grows in confluent clusters and has a thick peridium often invaginated into the gleba.

Truffle-like fungi are highly diverse yet poorly known in Australia. To assess the species richness, biomass, and community assemblages of truffle-like fungi in different habitats we sampled sporocarps of truffle-like fungi in three eucalypt-dominated forest types (grassy woodland, wet sclerophyll forest, and dry sclerophyll forest) once in summer and once in winter, at two sites (Mount Kaputar and New England) in northern New South Wales, Australia. One hundred and eighteen species in 35 genera were collected; over half (51.7 %) of the species were undescribed. Grassy woodland and wet forest communities had greater species richness and a lower standing crop than dry forest communities. Species richness and standing crop was greater in winter than in summer. Overall, species from the family Russulaceae, and the genera Dermocybe, Descomyces, and Hysterangium were dominant. Community composition varied among forest types and each forest type exhibited a suite of unique and common species, although much variation was unexplained. Variation in community structure was associated with some habitat attributes; at Mount Kaputar, woody plant species richness, canopy cover, litter depth, soil phosphorous, and elevation helped explain the sporocarp communities of different forest types, while at New England, woody plant species richness, rainfall, topographic aspect, soil texture, and soil nitrogen helped explain communities. This work contributes to knowledge of truffle-like fungal diversity, the factors affecting sporocarp distribution across landscapes, and the availability of sporocarps as a food resource for mycophagous mammals. Greater understanding of fungal diversity and mammal-fungal interactions also has important implications for managing forest biodiversity.

Based on morphological and SSU-ITS-LSU sequence data, two new mucoralean endoparasites, Mucor lilianae and M. rudolphii, are described from basidiomes of Hysterangium spp. originating from North America and Europe, respectively. Although no cultures could be obtained and no sporangial state is known, morphology of the zygospores as well as DNA sequences confirm their placement in the genus Mucor. Both species are indistinguishable by nuSSU-ITS-LSU rDNA sequence data, but the size and morphology of the zygospores of both species are highly distinct, justifying their status as vicariant distinct species. Ontogeny and morphology of zygospores are described and illustrated by detailed light and scanning electron microscope investigations. Zygospore wall consists of two separable layers, a dark brown, warty outer layer and a hyaline inner layer with parallel ridges showing fingerprint-like patterns. Zygospore morphology fits the genus Mucor, apart from the apposed suspensors which are exceptional for the genus. Within the genus Mucor, the two new species are remarkable and unique in their highly specialised ecological niche as endoparasites of superficially intact hypogeous basidiomes of Hysterangium spp., which is much in contrast to other mucoralean necrotrophic parasites of epigeous basidiomes which effect rapid decay of their host.

Dense hyphal mats formed by ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi are prominent features in Douglas-fir forest ecosystems, and have been estimated to cover up to 40% of the soil surface in some forest stands. Two morphotypes of EcM mats have been previously described: rhizomorphic mats, which have thick hyphal rhizomorphs and are found primarily in the organic horizon, and hydrophobic mats, which occur in the mineral horizon and have an ashy appearance. This study surveyed EcM mat and non-mat soils from eight early and late seral conifer forest stands at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in western Oregon. EcM mats were classified by morphology and taxonomic identities were determined by DNA sequencing. A variety of chemical and biochemical properties, including enzymes involved in C, N, and P cycling were measured. Analysis was confined to a comparison of rhizomorphic mats colonizing the organic horizon with non-mat organic soils, and hydrophobic mats with non-mat mineral soils. Both the organic and mineral horizons showed differences between mat and non-mat enzyme profiles when compared on a dry weight basis. In the organic horizon, rhizomorphic mats had greater chitinase activity than non-mat soils; and in the mineral horizon, hydrophobic mats had increased chitinase, phosphatase, and phenoloxidase activity compared to the non-mat soil. The rhizomorphic mats had 2.7 times more oxalate than the nonmats and significantly lower pH. In the mineral horizon, hydrophobic mats had 40 times more oxalate and significantly lower pH than non-mat mineral soils. Microbial biomass C was not significantly different between the rhizomorphic mat and non-mat organic soils. In the mineral horizon, however, the hydrophobic mats had greater microbial biomass C than the non-mat soils. These data demonstrate that soils densely colonized by EcM fungi create a unique soil environment with distinct microbial activities when compared to non-mat forest soils.

In order to assess the possible contribution of bolboceratine beetles to the dispersal of mycorrhizal fungal spores, faeces and/or gut contents of adults of several species and genera obtained from burrows or collected at lights at night were examined microscopically. Two species of Blackbolbus (frontalis and fucinus) were found to have fed on different species of hypogeous sporocarps (truffles). Furthermore, adults of Bbo. frontalis were found in burrows with truffles of the genera Amarrendia, Hysterangium and Scleroderma. Specimens of some Blackburnium, Bolboleaus and Bolborhachium species, on the other hand, were found to have ingested diffuse glomeralean mycelium and spores along with varying quantities of soil. Limited evidence of broad-scale distribution of spores was obtained. Some Scleroderma truffles found in burrows of Bbo. frontalis were honeycombed and inhabited by numerous nitidulid beetles identified as Thalycrodes mixta. Two truffles identified as Hysterangium found in soil close to a burrow of Bbo. frontalis were infested with nematodes.

Many forms of hypogeous fungi rely on small mammals to consume and disperse their spores. It is well documented in the Pacific Northwest that northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) rely on hypogeous fungi as a food resource. However, in more northern forests the taxonomic constituents of flying squirrel diets are relatively poorly documented. Using live-capture to obtain fecal samples, I examined dietary fungal diversity from the feces of 44 northern flying squirrels inhabiting variable-aged managed forest stands during late summer in the foothills of west-central Alberta, Canada. Fungal material was found in all specimens, and was identified to order, family, or genera via microscopic spore morphological classification. Twenty-six spore morphologies were found; 1 was identified to order, 4 to family, 13 to genus, and 8 remained unidentified. The most frequently consumed fungi were of the hypogeous form of the genera Cortinarius, Gastroboletus, and Hysterangium. Insect material also figured promin...

A study of the ectomycorrhizal fungal richness in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations and nurseries in Patagonia (Argentina) was conducted. Eight plantations and five nurseries were sampled for hypogeous and epigeous fungi from 1998 through 2002. Amphinema byssoides, Hymenogaster subalpinus, Hysterangium coriaceum, Radiigera taylorii, Suilus lakei and Tomentella atramentaria were found exclusively in plantations. Laccaria tortils, Tuber borchii and Tuber californicum were found exclusively in nurseries and Endogone lactifua, Hebeloma hiemale, Hebeloma mesophaeum, Inocybe kauffanii, Rhizopogon vilosulus and Thelephora terrestris were found in both nurseries and plantations. Overall, fifteen introduced mycorrhizal species were found. Rhizopogon vilosulus and Suilus lakei are the best potential candidates for use in mycorrhizal fungi inoculation programs for Douglas fir.

We investigated the effects of thinning young (35- to 45-yr-old) Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests on density, survival, body mass, movements, and diets of northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) in the northern coast range of Oregon. We used a repeated measures, randomized block design with 3 treatments (control, moderate thinning, and heavy thinning) and 4 replicates to study diets and population characteristics from 1994–1997. Densities of flying squirrels were variable in space and time, but they were positively correlated to biomass and frequency of fungal sporocarps, suggesting they were responding to food resources rather than forest structure. Fungal sporocarps comprised a major portion of the squirrel's diet, and other vegetative material made up the remainder of the diet. Several fungal genera including Gautieria, Geopora, Hymenogaster, Hysterangium, Melanogaster, and Rhizopogon were found more frequently in diets than on the trapping grids and therefore appeared to be ...

Eight isolates of ectomycorrhizal fungi namely, Laccaria fraterna (EM-1083),Laccaria laccata (EM-1191), Pisolithus tinctorius (EM-1081),Pisolithus tinctorius (EM-1293), Scleroderma cepa (EM-1233),Scleroderma flavidum (EM-1235),Scleroderma verucosum, (EM-1283) and Hysterangium incarceratum (EM-1185) were grown on specially designed cocktail media prepared by adding various concentrations of different heavy metals namely Al, As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb. The heavy metals were selected keeping in view their relative abundance in coal ash and potential toxicity. The fungal isolates were grown on such designed cocktail media. The colony diameter was used for the measurement of the fungal growth. Total heavy metal accumulated in the mycelia was assayed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In relation to metal tolerance ability in general,Hysterangium incarceratum (EM-1185) showed maximum tolerance with respect to growth, Laccaria fraterna (EM-1083) and Pisolithus tinctorius (EM-1293) also showed considerable tolerance to the heavy metals tested. In relation to metal uptake in particular, Pisolithus tinctorius (EM-1293), has reported maximum uptake of Al (34642.58 ppm), Cd (302.12 ppm) and Pb (3501.96 ppm). In Laccaria fraterna (EM-1083), As (130.57 ppm) and Cr (402.38 ppm) uptake was recorded maximum; and Hysterangium incarceratum (EM-1185) has recorded maximum Ni (2648.59 ppm) uptake among the three suitable isolates documented here.

Although much is known about truffle abundance and rodent mycophagy in mesic Douglas-fir forests in the Pacific Northwest, few data are available for dry interior montane forests dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and grand fir (Abies grandis). Our objective was to quantify the relationship between the abundance and diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps in the soil and in the diets of northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) in low-elevation forests of the eastern Washington Cascades. We randomly sampled four stands each of three cover types: dry open ponderosa pine, mesic young mixed-conifer forest, and mesic mature mixed-conifer forest. We sampled the soil for hypogeous sporocarps during the spring of 1999 and 2000. We collected fecal pellets from 318 flying squirrels live-trapped during the fall of 1997–2000. We sampled 2400 m2 of soil surface and found truffles in 40% of 600 plots. Total biomass collected was 609 g. Spring truffle biomass on a kg/ha basis averaged 1.72 in open pine, 3.56 in young, and 4.11 in mature forest. Twenty-two species were collected across all cover types, with all but three species belonging to the Basidiomycotina. Eleven dominant species accounted for 91–94% of truffle biomass in each cover type. Four dominant species accounted for 60–70% of spring truffle biomass: Gautieria monticola, Hysterangium coriaceum, Rhizopogon parksii, and R. vinicolor. Truffle assemblages, richness and total biomass differed among cover types: richness and biomass were highest in young and mature mixed-conifer forest, and lowest in open ponderosa pine forest. Fall squirrel diets were composed of 23 genera or groups of fungi, plus about 22% plant material. Rhizopogon was the most abundant genus in the diet, followed by plant material, then Gautieria, Leucogaster, Alpova, and Hysterangium. Diets in different cover types were similar in the composition, richness, evenness, and the ratio of fungus to plant material. Diet richness varied over the study period. Nineteen truffle genera were detected in fall fecal samples versus 12 in spring soil samples. Management of low-elevation dry forest to maintain or restore stable fire regimes might reduce truffle diversity at stand scales by simplifying stand composition and structure; but, such management might increase long-term beta and landscape truffle diversity and persistence by reducing the occurrence of high-intensity fires and stabilizing inherent fire disturbance regimes.

As many eucalypts in commercial plantations are poorly ectomycorrhizal there is a need to develop inoculation programs for forest nurseries. The use of fungal spores as inoculum is a viable proposition for low technology nurseries currently producing eucalypts for outplanting in developing countries. Forty-three collections of ectomycorrhizal fungi from southwestern Australia and two from China, representing 18 genera, were tested for their effectiveness as spore moculum on Eucalyptus globulus Labill. seedlings. Seven-day-old seedlings were inoculated with 25 mg air-dry spores in a water suspension. Ectomycorrhizal development was assessed in soil cores 65 and 110 days after inoculation. By day 65, about 50% of the treatments had formed ectomycorrhizas. By day 110, inoculated seedlings were generally ectomycorrhizal, but in many cases the percentage of roots colonized was low (< 10%). Species of Laccaria, Hydnangium, Descolea, Descomyces, Scleroderma and Pisolithus formed more ectomycorrhizas than the other fungi. Species of Russula, Boletus, Lactarius and Hysterangium did not form ectomycorrhizas. The dry weights of inoculated seedlings ranged from 90% to 225% of the uninoculated seedlings by day 110. Although plants with extensively colonized roots generally had increased seedling growth, the overall mycorrhizal colonization levels were poorly correlated to seedling growth. Species of Laccaria, Descolea, Scleroderma and Pisolithus are proposed as potential candidate fungi for nursery inoculation programs for eucalypts.

Micropropagated plantlets of Eucalyptus tereticornis at the root initiation stage were inoculated in vitro with Amanita murina, Hysterangium incarceratum, Laccaria laccata, Pisolithus tinctorius (3 isolates), Scleroderma cepa and S. flavidum in order to select the most compatible ectomycorrhizal partner. H. incarceratum and the two Scleroderma species did not form mycorrhizas with E. tereticornis. Two local isolates of P. tinctorius formed significantly more mycorrhizas than the other isolates tested. Plantlets with mycorrhizas formed by one of the local isolates of P. tinctorius were transplanted to the nursery where their growth significantly exceeded that of non-mycorrhizal plants.

Oxalate crystals and elements binding to the surfaces of mycorrhizal fungal hyphae were examined using scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray analysis of elemental composition. Mycorrhizae from the arid zone vegetation types in southern California were examined including chaparral, riparian oak woodlands, coastal sage, grasslands, and deserts. Only mat-forming ectomycorrhizal hyphae, such as Hysterangium separabile, were found to produce oxalate crystals. None of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae (Glomus spp. and Acaulospora elegans) examined had crystal structures associated with them. The hyphae of Hysterangium separabile without crystals did not show the Ca peaks that were present when the crystals existed nor did the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae have the Ca peaks. The elimination of arbuscular mycorrhizae using benomyl did not affect soil P or oxalate. These data indicate that there are some fundamental differences in chemical exudation between mycorrhizal fungi that could affect P uptake and cycling in arid ecosystems.

This study was designed to determine whether ectomycorrhizal mats (ECM) are more likely to be present in soils at the base of common understory trees than in soils distant from trees and to determine whether occurrence of ECM is related to tree size. Three understory trees were studied: Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia Nutt.), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.)Sarg), and vine maple (Acer circinatum Pursh). The 12 sites studied represent a range of climatic conditions and management histories. More than 2,900 plots were surveyed over 18 months. The incidence of ECM was higher at the base of all three species than in control plots. Incidence of mats was also positively correlated with tree size. Saplings consistently had a lower incidence of ECM than did larger trees.

Across three tropical Australian sclerophyll forest types, site-specific environmental variables could explain the distribution of both quantity (abundance and biomass) and richness (genus and species) of hypogeous fungi sporocarps. Quantity was significantly higher in the Allocasuarina forest sites that had high soil nitrogen but low phosphorous. Three genera of hypogeous fungi were found exclusively in Allocasuarina forest sites including Gummiglobus, Labyrinthomyces and Octaviania, as were some species of Castoreum, Chondrogaster, Endogone, Hysterangium and Russula. However, the forest types did not all group according to site-scale variables and subsequently the taxonomic assemblages were not significantly different between the three forest types. At site scale, significant negative relationships were found between phosphorous concentration and the quantity of hypogeous fungi sporocarps. Using a multivariate information theoretic approach, there were other more plausible models to explain the patterns of sporocarp richness. Both the mean number of fungal genera and species increased with the number of Allocasuarina stems, at the same time decreasing with the number of Eucalyptus stems. The optimal conditions for promoting hypogeous fungi sporocarp quantity and sporocarp richness appear to be related to the presence and abundance of Allocasuarina (Casuarinaceae) host trees. Allocasuarina tree species may have a higher host receptivity for ectomycorrhizal hypogeous fungi species that provide an important food resource for Australian mycophagous animals.

Sporocarps of hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Eucalyptus tenuiramus were censused over a 22-month period in southeastern Tasmania. Analysis of distribution of sporocarps showed that most were within two metres of adult trees, and that numbers were highest on a relatively acid soil with a low phosphorus content. Neither size nor species of associated tree had any effect on sporocarp abundance. A total of 23 recognized species from 12 genera were collected. Total biomass and density was dominated by fungi of the Mesophelliaceae, with Mesophellia spp. being especially abundant. For most taxa, temporal variation in sporocarp production was related either to rainfall or temperature, but the type of response varied greatly between taxa. Abundance of Mesophellia sporocarps was greatest 2 wk after rain; abundance of Hymenogaster and Thaxterogaster sporocarps was greatest 4–8 wk after periods of low temperature; abundance of Hysterangium and a range of other soft-bodied sporocarps was greatest immediately after rain; and abundance of Castoreum tasmanicum was greatest approximately four months after periods of low rainfall. A number of other taxa showed no significant variation in relation to weather, and sporocarp production of all taxa combined showed no clear seasonal pattern. Total annual production was estimated to be at least 366 kg ha −1 yr −1 dry matter and 457 000 sporocarps ha −1 yr −1 .

Three Gallacea species (including G. dingleyae sp. nov., G. eburnea sp. nov.), five Hysterangium species (including H. neotunicatum sp. nov., H. rugisporum sp. nov., H. rupticutis sp. nov., H. youngii sp. nov.), one Phallobata species, and three Protubera species (P. hautuensis sp. nov., P. nothofagi sp. nov., P. parvispora sp. nov.) are recognised in New Zealand. Keys to and descriptions of all taxa are provided.

Survival and productivity of Douglas-fir [ Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] depend on close association between host trees and ectomycorrhizal fungi. Two of these fungi, Hysterangium setchellii (Fischer) and Gautieria monticola (Harkness), form extensive hyphal mats with the roots of Douglas-fir and other conifers in the surface of the ‘A’ horizon, often at the interface between mineral oil and litter. The fungal mat alters the chemistry and mineral nutrition of the soil microenvironment within the rhizosphere, producing conditions that favor increased tree growth by increasing nutrient availability. Forest soils with or without obvious ectomycorrhizal mats were sampled at two locations in the Pacific Northwest. Cation and anion chemistry, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and oxalate anions were analyzed. Mean concentrations of DOC, oxalate, PO 4 , SO 4 , H, Al, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn were significantly higher in mat than in non-mat soil solutions in both mat types and locations and on both sampling dates. Significant statistical correlations between DOC or oxalate and PO 4 indicate that organic acids influence weathering and solubility of PO 4 in the mat soils. Mean oxalate concentrations were significantly lower in soil solutions from Hysterangium mat soils than in those from Gautieria mat soils. Organic acids released to the rhizosphere by G. monilcola and H. setchellii may provide a local weathering environment that increases availability of PO 4 , SO 4 and trace nutrients.

Oak woodland regeneration and restoration requires that seedlings develop mycorrhizas, yet the need for this mutualistic association is often overlooked. In this study, we asked whether Quercus garryana seedlings in nursery beds acquire mycorrhizas without artificial inoculation or access to a mycorrhizal network of other ectomycorrhizal hosts. We also assessed the relationship between mycorrhizal infection and seedling growth in a nursery. Further, we compared the mycorrhizal assemblage of oak nursery seedlings to that of conifer seedlings in the nursery and to that of oak seedlings in nearby oak woodlands. Seedlings were excavated and the roots washed and examined microscopically. Mycorrhizas were identified by DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region and by morphotype. On oak nursery seedlings, predominant mycorrhizas were species of Laccaria and Tuber with single occurrences of Entoloma and Peziza. In adjacent beds, seedlings of Pseudotsuga menziesii were mycorrhizal with Hysterangium and a different species of Laccaria; seedlings of Pinus monticola were mycorrhizal with Geneabea, Tarzetta, and Thelephora. Height of Q. garryana seedlings correlated with root biomass and mycorrhizal abundance. Total mycorrhizal abundance and abundance of Laccaria mycorrhizas significantly predicted seedling height in the nursery. Native oak seedlings from nearby Q. garryana woodlands were mycorrhizal with 13 fungal symbionts, none of which occurred on the nursery seedlings. These results demonstrate the value of mycorrhizas to the growth of oak seedlings. Although seedlings in nursery beds developed mycorrhizas without intentional inoculation, their mycorrhizas differed from and were less species rich than those on native seedlings.

We investigated the species identity of mat-forming ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi associated with old- and second-growth Douglas-fir stands. Using molecular analyses of rhizomorphs and EM root tips, we characterized 28 unique internal transcribed spacer sequences and considered them proxies for mat-forming EM species. In both stand age classes, one Athelioid species in the genus Piloderma dominated our sample of the mat-forming fungal community. In second-growth stands, the second most frequently encountered mat-forming EM species belonged to the genus Hysterangium. In old-growth stands, several Ramaria species were associated with a frequently encountered mat morphology but no species dominated the community. After using rarefaction analysis to standardize sampling effort, the total species richness did not differ statistically between old- and second-growth habitats. Both an abundance of infrequently encountered species and incomplete sampling of the mat-forming EM community may have limited our ability to detect potential differences in species richness. Several frequently encountered Piloderma species appear to have broad (holarctic) distributions and diverse host associations and their potential importance in forest ecosystems warrants further study.

In naming the new species Hysterangium colossum (Elliott et al. 2015), we indicated that the epithet colossum was based on the Latin equivalent of the English adjective “colossal”. This Latin noun is actually “colosseus”, and so we have to make an orthographic correction as the correct Latin adjectival termination for “colossal” is “…eum” (Simpson 1959: 116). The species epithet must therefore be corrected to “colosseum”. This does not affect the valid publication of the name in our paper (Art. 32.2).

Faecal matter collected from the American Red Squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and the Eastern Chipmunk (Tamias striatus) on the campus of Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, was examined for the presence of consumed fungal tissue. A total of 14 faecal samples were collected from live-trapped animals over six trapping periods (19 June to 25 September 2010). Eight samples contained intact remains of spores representative of hypogeous truffle fungi found in the genera Elaphomyces, Gautieria, Hymenogaster, Hysterangium, and Leucangium, as well as spores of epigeous mushrooms found in the orders Boletales and Pezizales and possibly in the family Tricholomataceae of the Agaricales. The results of this brief survey suggest not only the importance of mycophagy in the diet of American Red Squirrels and Eastern Chipmunks in the boreal mixed wood forests of northwestern Ontario but also the important role played by sciurids in vectoring spores of truffle fungi in this region.

Faecal analysis from the only known population of Gilbert?s potoroo (Potorous gilbertii) near Albany, Western Australia revealed that it, like other rat-kangaroo species is primarily mycophagous. Diet was determined by faecal collections from live-captured animals within Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve. Microscopic examination of samples collected from June - September 2000 and additional samples from storage, found fungi to comprise over 90% of faecal matter. A total of 44 fungal spore types were identified with many believed to be of hypogeous origin. Fungal spores belonging to the genera Mesophellia, Elaphomyces, Hysterangium and an unknown spore type (Unknown 1) were frequently recorded in samples. Non-fungal material including plants (stems, roots and seeds) and invertebrates represented the remainder. This investigation found that P. gilbertii fed almost exclusively on fungi and could be considered a specialised mycophagist.

The importance of ectomycorrhizas in Eucalyptus tetrodonta F.Muell. and E. miniata Cunn. ex Schauer dominated forests and woodland communities in the monsoonal tropics of northern Australia was assessed. Ectomycorrhizas colonised between 24 and 54% of final order lateral roots in soil cores collected at 16 native forest sites. Only a minority of the plant species present formed ectomycorrhizas (mainly eucalypts and acacias) but these species contributed more than 75% of the basal area. More than 70 species of putative ectomycorrhizal fungi were collected, with three hypogeous taxa (Nothocastoreum, Hysterangium and an undescribed Boletaceae) most frequently encountered. Glasshouse inoculation experiments confirmed that a diverse range of fungi was capable of forming ectomycorrhizas with E. tetrodonta and E. miniata seedlings, and that the growth of both species could be substantially increased by inoculation with specific fungi. The fungi most effective in increasing seedling growth were generally those which most extensively colonised the seedling roots. A second component of this study investigated the requirements for ectomycorrhizal fungi in native forest rehabilitation following mining. Ectomycorrhizal infectivity was low in disturbed soils and mine spoil materials, with the intensity of disturbance and the presence of regrowth vegetation key determinants of the level of infectivity. Inoculation of seedlings of E. miniata with spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi increased both growth and leaf phosphorus concentrations by between two- and three-fold at 7 months after planting out on a waste rock dump devoid of native ectomycorrhizal propagules. The application of these findings to minesite rehabilitation in the region, and the feasibility of using spores for broad-scale inoculation, are discussed.

Hypogeous sporocarps of ectomycorrhizal fungi were harvested from 10 Douglas-fir stands representing a variety of natural habitats. Calculated over all stands, total dry standing biomass equaled 1....

A new genus in the Hymenogastraceae, Destuntzia, is created to accommodate two species formerly placed in Hymenogaster, H. ruber and H. subborealis, and three previously undescribed species, D. fusca, D. saylorii, and D. solstitialis. Destuntzia is characterized by the locules lacking an organized hymenium and being filled with a gel containing pigmented, verrucose to rugulose spores. From its conception, Hymenogaster has included all hypogeous Basidiomy? cetes that have non-gelatinous trama, brown spores possessing smooth to ver? rucose or warty-rugulose ornamentation, and a columella that is absent to narrow and decurrent (Dodge and Zeller, 1934; Smith, 1973). Dring (1973) has further characterized Hymenogaster as having aulaeate sporocarp development and ba? sidia arranged in an organized hymenium. A rather unusual fungus collected by Trappe during the 1971 Stuntz Foray in Mendocino County, California, has led us to re-evaluate the inclusion of some species in Hymenogaster. The fungus collected by Trappe and a second specimen of the same fungus collected by Fogel in Marin County, California, has small, spherical, gel-filled locules, loosely arranged basidia, a thick peridium that stains blue when bruised, and spores that are light olive in KOH and ornamented with warts. Attempts to identify this fungus as a member ofthe Melanogastraceae sensu lato, characterized by gel-filled locules and loosely arranged basidia, were unsuccessful. Subsequent study showed that this distinctive fungus has been described as Hymenogaster ruber by Harkness (1899). The lack of detailed notes on fresh sporocarps of the type and its preservation in liquid probably account for the lack of mention of gel in the locules and the structure of the hymenium in earlier descriptions. The anomalous position ofthe species in Hymenogaster was recognized by Dodge and Zeller (1934). They noted some similarity in the gelatinous gleba and olivaceous spores of H. ruber with some species of Hysterangium (a genus of the Phallaceae producing hypogeous sporocarps, several species of which have light green spores enclosed in a wrinkled utricle), but retained it in Hymenogaster ". . . because of the verrucose spores and the lack of a columella." Smith (1966) later noted that the spores of H. ruber are much too deeply pigmented for placement in Hyster? angium. Other fungi possessing some of the features exhibited by H. ruber, including H. subborealis Smith, have since come to our attention. The combination of gel in the locules, lack of an organized hymenium, and pigmented, verrucose to

Investigation of the behaviour of Phytophthora cinnamomi zoospores on non-mycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal roots of Eucalyptus marginata seedlings showed that zoospores encysted and germinated on both root types, but subsequent infection of root tissues was influenced by the type of ectomycorrhizal symbiont and the mycorrhizosphere population associated with the roots. In general, there was little evidence of colonization of P. cinnamomi zoospore cysts or germ tubes by the bacterial and/or actinomycete flora in the rhizoplane of non-mycorrhizal roots of seedlings growing in podsolic soil. On the other hand, there was extensive colonization of the fungus propagules on non-mycorrhizal roots in litter by bacteria and/or actinomycetes. Recovery of the pathogen was also markedly less from these roots than from similar root types growing in soil. Ectomycorrhizas formed by the ascomycete Cenococcum geophilum and the basidiomycete Hysterangium inflation failed to limit root infection in soil and the pathogen was recovered from both root types after 55 d incubation. There was no recovery of the pathogen from ‘white type’ basidiomycete ectomycorrhizas even after 24 h incubation. Micrographs showed zoospores either germinating but failing to penetrate the mantle or being enveloped and parasitized by a range of morphologically distinctive bacteria and a fungus within hours of inoculation of roots with zoospores. The data indicate a specific role for micro-organisms associated with root surfaces in antagonizing and limiting infection of roots by P. cinnamomi zoospores.

Fungal sporocarps of Hydnangium carneum Wallr., Laccaria laccata (Scop. ex Fr.) Berk. ex Br., Scleroderma spp, Hymenogaster spp., Hysterangium spp, Cortinarius spp, etc. were found to be associated with five species of eucalypts Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T. Bak., E. regnans F. Muell., E. nitens Maiden, E.fastigata Deane et Maiden, and E. saligna Sm.) in nurseries or stands in the North Island of New Zealand. A total of 5345 mycorrhizal pieces were plated out in isolation studies. More than 47% of these pieces remained free of fungal outgrowth, 16% yielded dark sterile mycelia, 7% yielded hyaline sterile fungi, 17% produced sporing Fungi Imperfecti, 5.8% were basidiomycetous fungi identified as H. carneum, Scleroderma spp, Paxillus sp. and Hymenogaster albus (Klotzsch) Berk. et Br., and 5.9% were unidentified basidiomycetes. Mycorrhizas were synthesized on eucalypt seedlings by 12 identified basidiomycetes which form sporocarps in eucalypt stands and 12 unidentified basidiomycetes isolated from the mycorrhizas. Under the test conditions two Cortinarius spp and one unidentified basidiomycete did not form mycorrhizas. The results indicate a possible importance of H. carneum as a mycorrhizal fungus of eucalypts in the North Island of New Zealand.

Macroscopic characters of healthy fruit body. Gregarious under conifers, pyriform or slightly lobed or flattened-takes shape of any hard object such as a root against which it is growing; up to 2.5 cm diam (usually about 1-1.5) ; peridium snow white, slowly becoming pinkish, vinaceous brown and finally natal brown on exposure and bruising, never becoming blue, unpolished, up to 1 mm thick, tough but readily separating from gleba; gleba olive green, central columella gelatinous, appearing milky opalescent, extending along ray-like branches almost to periphery and connected at base of fruit-body with non-gelatinous floccose rhizomorph. Rhizomorphs branched, extensive. Odor slight or unpleasant. Peridium 2-layered, thin epicutis of appressed interwoven hyphae (yellowish in KOH) cells soon becoming collapsed and amorphous, main part of peridium of hyaline, thin-walled inflated cells, many cells deep (FIGS. 1, 2). No clamps seen. Gleba much convoluted to give minute cavities lined with a regular hymenium (FIG. 1, 3), becoming filled with spores; columella thin. branched, gelatinous. Tramal plates of interwoven gelatinous hyphae. Clamps seen in tramal plates. Basidia 4-spored ca. 25 x 6-7 K when sporulating, hyaline. Paraphyses hyaline, abundant, 9-13 , broad.

Summary 1. The monotypic genus Gallacea is confined to New Zealand. 2. Development proceeds by four stages: (a) the primordium consists of closely woven, intricately branched hyphae; (b) a dome-shaped zone of cavities appears, surrounding a central undifferentiated area, and surrounded by the primordium of the peridium, these cavities are large, and do not possess a definite hymenium, basidia appearing on small scattered papillae; (c) rapid growth of tramae and trabeculae, with appearance of numerous lacunae lined with hymenium; (d) gelatinisation of tramae and trabeculae, accompanied by peripheral formation of gleba around the inner margin of the peridium. 3. Basidia are at first 1–4-spored and are borne on irregular scattered papillae, but after the appearance of a definite hymenium (c) they become regularly six-spored. 4. Colour appears in the outer layers of hyphae of the peridium as soon as the plant appears on the surface. It is due to the presence of pigment granules in the protoplasm lining the cell walls. 5. At maturity the gleba collapses, owing to loss of moisture from the tramae and smaller trabeculae, and lines the inner walls of the peridium and the trabeculae which persist. 6. Spores are invariably binucleate. 7. The genus resembles closely the genus Hysterangium , and on that account is tentatively placed in the Hysterangiaceae.

The following species are described: Hydnangium virescens n.sp., H. echinulatum n.sp., Arcangeliella beccarii (Petri) Dodge & Zeller, A. malaiencis n.sp., Elasmomyces borneensis (Petri) Dodge & Zeller, E. malaiensis n.sp., Stephanospora penangensis n.sp., Wakefieldia striaespora n.gen., n.sp., Chamonixia mucosa (Petri) Corner & Hawker n.comb., C. octorugosa n.sp., Dendrogaster cambodgensis Patouillard, D. aurantius n.sp., Hymenogaster viscidus Massee & Rodway, Hysterangium purpureum Zeller & Dodge var. malaiense n.var., Elaphomyces singaporensis n.sp., E. carbonaceus n.sp.