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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has a high intracellular millimolar concentration (ca. 2.4 mM) throughout the phylogenetic spectrum of eukaryotes, archaea, and prokaryotes. In addition, the function of ATP as a hydrotrope in the prevention of protein aggregation and maintenance of protein solubilization is essential to cellular, tissue, and organ homeostasis. The 31P spectral modulus (PSM) is a measure of the health status of cell, tissue, and organ systems, as well as of ATP, and it is based on in vivo 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (31P NMR) spectra. The PSM is calculated by dividing the area of the 31P NMR integral curve representing the high-energy phosphates by that of the low-energy phosphates. Unlike the difficulties encountered in measuring organophosphates such as ATP or any other phosphorylated metabolites in a conventional 31P NMR spectrum or in processed tissue samples, in vivo PSM measurements are possible with NMR surface-coil technology. The PSM does not rely on the resolution of individual metabolite signals but uses the total area derived from each of the NMR integral curves of the above-described spectral regions. Calculation is based on a simple ratio of the high- and low-energy phosphate bands, which are conveniently arranged in the high- and low-field portions of the 31P NMR spectrum. In practice, there is essentially no signal overlap between these two regions, with the dividing point being ca. −3 δ. ATP is the principal contributor to the maintenance of an elevated PSM that is typically observed in healthy systems. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that (1) in general, the higher the metabolic activity, the higher the 31P spectral modulus, and (2) the modulus calculation does not require highly resolved 31P spectral signals and thus can even be used with reduced signal-to-noise spectra such as those detected as a result of in vivo analyses or those that may be obtained during a clinical MRI examination. With increasing metabolic stress or maturation of metabolic disease in cells, tissues, or organ systems, the PSM index declines; alternatively, with decreasing stress or resolution of disease states, the PSM increases. The PSM can serve to monitor normal homeostasis as a diagnostic tool and may be used to monitor disease processes with and without interventional treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrotropes are amphiphiles that improve the water solubility of hydrophobic substances. In this study, we systematically evaluated the effects of eight hydrotropes on the antibacterial activity of fatty acids solubilized in a micellar system. The antibacterial activity was evaluated using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) as an indicator, and CMC was calculated for interfacial properties based on the measurement of the surface tension and the solubilization behavior of the oil‐soluble dye. The solubilization of lauric acid (12:0 FA) in the micelles of nonionic surfactants increased and decreased the antibacterial activities of the surfactants against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Staphylococcus epidermidis, respectively. The addition of the hydrotropes decreased the antibacterial activity of the surfactants against both Staphylococci. However, on introducing small amounts of 12:0 FA, the surfactants exhibited selective antibacterial activity against S. aureus. These antibacterial phenomena were observed at concentrations above the critical micelle concentration of the surfactants. These findings suggest that the addition of hydrotropes affects the interfacial properties and antibacterial activity of micellar systems containing antibacterial ingredients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geraniol is a crucial component in the leaves of palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini) and it has a wide range of biological properties and applications. A brand-new concept of hydrotrope-assisted extraction is proposed for the isolation of geraniol using different techniques such as microwave technology (MAHE), hydro distillation (HAHD), and ultrasound technology (UAHE) in this study. A solubility test was carried out between two different hydrotropes such as sodium salicylate and resorcinol to find out the better hydrotrope for the extraction. At 40% (w/v), sodium salicylate has higher solubility (3.74% (w/v)) than resorcinol. Response surface methodology (RSM) was performed for all techniques to optimize the process parameters by varying the volume of hydrotrope solution from 300 to 600 mL and extraction time from 5 to 25 min. A maximum yield of 2.47% (w/w) was obtained during the UAHE process under the optimized condition of 5 min sonication time, 600 mL volume of 0.42 M of sodium salicylate and 120 W ultrasound power. The geraniol content was identified by using gas chromatogram and found to be 0.31% in 10 mL of sample obtained from UAHE technique. Therefore, the ultrasound-assisted hydrotrope technique has highly recommended to sustainable development for large-scale application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyindole (PIN) has been one of the rising promising conducting polymers of this decade, attracting researchers' attention worldwide. This can be attributed to better redox activity and physicochemical stability. Several techniques had reported synthesis of PIN in organic and aqueous media. However, it has been always reported as difficult. Challenges such as mixed morphology, irregular particle size and undesired agglomeration are among several outcomes' researchers face. Hence, for the first time we present hydrotopically engineered chemical oxidative polymerisation of indole in the presence of Vanadium selenide (VS) in aqueous media. A hydrotrope is a compound that enhances the aqueous solubility of organic compound. The resulting nanocomposite was comprised of decorated polyindole over self-assembled 1D vanadium selenide, giving a 3D sheet like structure, as evident from FESEM studies. The results also highlighted uniform decoration of PIN over the background of VS. Besides, the physicochemical interaction between PIN and VS had been validated using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and XRD analysis. Furthermore, electrochemical studies through cyclic voltammetry, galvanic charging discharging techniques for the nanocomposite revealed improved specific capacitance of PV (w.r.t VS) as evidenced from the higher voltametric output current than VS. Electrochemical impedance also corroborated the superior charge transfer at lower frequencies, suggesting the real time applications of the nanocomposite. Lastly, to compliment the electrochemical performance, the nano composite was also used in fabrication of asymmetric super capacitor, which was used to illuminate LED and power a digital stopwatch to augment the conductivity and real time charge storage ability of the as synthesised nanocomposite. To the best of our knowledge, synthesis of PV nano composite using hydrotrope – tetra n-octyl ammonium bromide in aqueous medium can be a promising electrode material for fabrication of super capacitor, resulting in a synergistic enhancement of vanadium selenide using PIN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel approach for the ultrasound-assisted synthesis of 3,4‑dihydropyrimidin‑2(1H)‑ones was developed by using biodegradable supported nanoparticles in a hydrotropic aqueous medium. Agar-supported NiO nanoparticles (NiO@AG NPs) were synthesized by in-situ co-precipitation method and characterization by means of spectroscopic and microscopic techniques indicates that spherical NiO NPs successfully supported on the surface of agar with particle size 31.22 nm containing Carbon, Nickel and Oxygen as major elements. NiO@AG NPs exhibit higher activity for the synthesis of 3,4‑dihydropyrimidin‑2(1H)‑ones in an aqueous medium by using hydrotropes with high (463.51 h−1) turn over frequency. Short reaction time, high efficiency, centrifugation-free method of separation of the catalyst, and column chromatography-free isolation of the product are the key factor of this protocol. The easy synthetic method and stable form of NiO nanoparticles supported on agar suggest that it could be an efficient material for water-based organic transformation on a large scale with high turnover frequency in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractSolubilizing drugs in liquid and semisolid environments typically involves the use of cosolvents or surfactants. In contrast, the utilization of hydrotropic agents, which are small hydrophilic organic compounds like sodium salicylate or sodium benzoate, has been less explored in the field of pharmaceutical formulations. However, particularly in the context of topical dosage forms, hydrotropic solubilization can present valuable alternatives for enhancing solubility. One challenge in employing hydrotropic solubilization has been the unpredictability of its effectiveness with different drug molecules. In the current study, three different hydrotropes namely sodium salicylate, sodium benzoate, and pyrogallol were chosen to test the solubility enhancement of benzimidazole drug. Optimization of solubility was proceeded with Central Composite Design obtained from RSM expert system. It was noticed from the results that sodium salicylate had performed the best compared to the other two chosen hydrotropes. This was also reexamined using two models namely modified Apelblat model and polynomial model. The thermodynamic studies were assessed and it had reconfirmed the acquired solubility study results. The minimum and maximum hydrotrope concentrations of sodium salicylate required were 0.4 and 2.25 mol/L, respectively. The solubility enhancement factor was also remarkably high for sodium salicylate with 36.91 ± 0.07. With careful selection of the appropriate hydrotropic agent, the solubility of poorly soluble drug, benzimidazole has been significantly improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has a high intracellular millimolar concentration (ca. 2.4 mM) throughout the phylogenetic spectrum of eukaryotes, archaea, and prokaryotes. In addition, the function of ATP as a hydrotrope in the prevention of protein aggregation and maintenance of protein solubilization is essential to cellular, tissue, and organ homeostasis. The 31P spectral modulus (PSM) is a measure of the health status of cell, tissue, and organ systems, as well as of ATP, and it is based on in vivo 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (31P NMR) spectra. The PSM is calculated by dividing the area of the 31P NMR integral curve representing the high-energy phosphates by that of the low-energy phosphates. Unlike the difficulties encountered in measuring organophosphates such as ATP or any other phosphorylated metabolites in a conventional 31P NMR spectrum or in processed tissue samples, in vivo PSM measurements are possible with NMR surface-coil technology. The PSM does not rely on the resolution of individual metabolite signals but uses the total area derived from each of the NMR integral curves of the above-described spectral regions. Calculation is based on a simple ratio of the high- and low-energy phosphate bands, which are conveniently arranged in the high- and low-field portions of the 31P NMR spectrum. In practice, there is essentially no signal overlap between these two regions, with the dividing point being ca. −3 δ. ATP is the principal contributor to the maintenance of an elevated PSM that is typically observed in healthy systems. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that (1) in general, the higher the metabolic activity, the higher the 31P spectral modulus, and (2) the modulus calculation does not require highly resolved 31P spectral signals and thus can even be used with reduced signal-to-noise spectra such as those detected as a result of in vivo analyses or those that may be obtained during a clinical MRI examination. With increasing metabolic stress or maturation of metabolic disease in cells, tissues, or organ systems, the PSM index declines; alternatively, with decreasing stress or resolution of disease states, the PSM increases. The PSM can serve to monitor normal homeostasis as a diagnostic tool and may be used to monitor disease processes with and without interventional treatment.

To unleash the crude potential of polyindole (PIN), it is necessary to modify the polymerization technique in a way that a purer form of PIN is obtained with minimal pre- and post-processing. This work emphasizes the chemical oxidative polymerization of indole in the presence of a hydrotrope–tetra n-octyl ammonium bromide (TOAB), which acts as a phase transfer catalyst and encapsulating agent. The inclusion of TOAB resulted in a fine and uniform morphology of PIN with an average diameter of up to ± 100 nm. In addition, the physicochemical properties were analysed using X-ray diffraction and were in line with FESEM and FTIR analysis. The conjugated activity was also distinguished using UV–Vis. Furthermore, the synthesized PIN was also subjected to an electrochemical study, resulting in a higher specific capacitance in order of two or three magnitudes than those synthesized in the presence of a complete or partial organic solvent, or surfactants. To approve these results, a simple asymmetric supercapacitor was fabricated using as-synthesized PIN and activated carbon as electrode material to power electrical watch. The fabricated low-power energy storage device was able to keep the electronic watch on for more than 240 s, attesting the superior charge transfer and ion mobility. Hence, this work offers a new approach to synthesize PIN as binder-free electrode in aqueous mode and demonstrates a promising potential in several energy storage applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein aggregation is the etiopathogenesis of the three most profound vision-threatening eye diseases: age-related cataract, presbyopia, and age-related macular degeneration. This perspective organizes known information on ATP and protein aggregation with a fundamental unrecognized function of ATP. With recognition that maintenance of protein solubility is related to the high intracellular concentration of ATP in cells, tissues, and organs, we hypothesize that (1) ATP serves a critical molecular function for organismal homeostasis of proteins and (2) the hydrotropic feature of ATP prevents pathological protein aggregation while assisting in the maintenance of protein solubility and cellular, tissue, and organismal function. As such, the metabolite ATP plays an extraordinarily important role in the prevention of protein aggregation in the leading causes of vision loss or blindness worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ATP is an important small molecule that appears at outstandingly high concentration within the cellular medium. Apart from its use as a source of energy and a metabolite, there is increasing evidence for important functions as a cosolute for biomolecular processes. Owned to its solubilizing kosmotropic triphosphate and hydrophobic adenine moieties, ATP is a versatile cosolute that can interact with biomolecules in various ways. We here use three models to categorize these interactions and apply them to review recent studies. We focus on the impact of ATP on biomolecular solubility, folding stability and phase transitions. This leads us to possible implications and therapeutic interventions in neurodegenerative diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, interactions between cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) and ceftriaxone sodium (CTS) were investigated applying conductivity technique. Impacts of the nature of additives (e.g. electrolytes or hydrotrope (HDT)), change of temperatures (from 298.15 to 323.15 K), and concentration variation of CTS/additives were assessed on the micellization of CPC + CTS mixture. The conductometric analysis of critical micelle concentration (CMC) with respect to the concentration reveals that the CMC values were increased with the increase in CTS concentration. In terms of using different mediums, CMC did not differ much with the increase in electrolyte salt (NaCl, Na2SO4) concentration, but increased significantly with the rise of HDT (NaBenz) amount. In the presence of electrolyte, CMC showed a gentle increment with temperature, while the HDT showed the opposite trend. Obtained result was further correlated with conventional thermodynamic relationship, where standard Gibb's free energy change (Δ G m o) , change of enthalpy (Δ H m o) , and change of entropy (Δ S m o ) were utilized to investigate. The Δ G m o values were negative for all the mixed systems studied indicating that the micellization process was spontaneous. Finally, the stability of micellization was studied by estimating the intrinsic enthalpy gain ( Δ H m o , ∗ ) and compensation temperature (Tc). Here, CPC + CTS mixed system showed more stability in Na2SO4 medium than the NaCl, while in NaBenz exhibited the lowest stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we explored the catalytic activity of CuO NPs prepared by gum of the Acacia Senegal plant for the multicomponent synthesis of Coumarin derivatives in an aqueous medium. The morphology of Bi–CuO NPs was characterized by FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, and TGA–DTA tools. It has been shown that Bi–CuO NPs not only act as an efficient and green catalyst for the synthesis of Coumarin derivatives in an aqueous medium but also recover easily and is recycled many times without significant loss in their catalytic activity. High efficiency, short reaction time, high TOF, green solvent, and chromatography-free separation of the product are the key features of this work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] The role of hormones and polyphenolic acids in communication and regulation of biological processes can be linked to their physical–chemical interaction with target compounds and water. Further, the variety of polyphenolic acids suggests adjustable hydrotropic properties of these natural compounds. Phase transition temperature (PTT) measurements of binary water/di(propylene glycol) n -propyl ether (DPnP) or propylene glycol n -propyl ether (PnP) systems with sodium dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (NaDHEAS), indole-3-acetate (NaIAA), indole-3-butyrate (NaIBA) – common hormones -, and sodium polyphenolates should unravel their salting-in/-out properties. Their salting-in/-out behavior was compared to the compounds' surface-active and structuring properties via surface tension, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments. All hormone salts were revealed as salting-in agents. PTT, surface tension and DLS measurements indicated surfactant-like behavior of the hormone NaDHEAS, and hydrotropic behavior of NaIAA and NaIBA. The salting-in/-out properties of sodium polyphenolates – in an (anti-)hydrotrope range – are adjustable with functional groups. The (i) absence of nano-structuring in pure water, (ii) the reduction of the DPnP nano-structuring in water in presence of sodium polyphenolates and (iii) the absence of a slope change of the PTT curves at the critical aggregation concentration showed that the DPnP/polyphenolate interactions are of molecular hydrotropic and not of micellar/aggregative nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability and greenness are the concepts of growing interest in the area of research as well as industries. One of the frequently encountered challenges faced in research and industrial fields is the solubility of the hydrophobic compound. Conventionally organic solvents are used in various applications; however, their contribution to environmental pollution, the huge energy requirement for separation and higher consumption lead to unsustainable practice. We require solvents that curtail the usage of hazardous material, increase the competency of mass and energy and embrace the concept of recyclability or renewability. Hydrotropy is one of the approaches for fulfilling these requirements. The phenomenon of solubilizing hydrophobic compound using hydrotrope is termed hydrotropy. Researchers of various fields are attracted to hydrotropy due to its unique physicochemical properties. In this review article, fundamentals about hydrotropes and various mechanisms involved in hydrotropy have been discussed. Hydrotropes are widely used in separation, heterogeneous chemical reactions, natural product extraction and pharmaceuticals. Applications of hydrotropes in these fields are discussed at length. We have examined the significant outcomes and correlated them with green engineering and green chemistry principles, which could give an overall picture of hydrotropy as a green and sustainable approach for the above applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the impact of microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment using sodium cumene sulfonate on the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose contained in pine chips, beech chips and wheat straw biomasses as well as the effectiveness of the production of bioethanol from the obtained hydrolysates. The effectiveness of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose contained in beech chips and wheat straw subjected to pretreatment in optimised process conditions amounted to ca. 55–60%. As a result of this, hydrolysates containing glucose in the concentration of 76–84 g/L were acquired, which is a significant achievement in the case of cellulosic hydrolysates. A lower efficiency of the process was recorded when cellulose from pine chips was used (maximum hydrolysis efficiency was 17.21 ± 0.09%), which confirms a higher resistance of softwood biomass to the process of biodegradation. The highest concentration of ethanol, at the level of 41.44 ± 0.55 g/L, was achieved through the fermentation of the medium being a hydrolysate of wheat straw after microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment. The developed raw material and hydrolysate preparation method indicates the possibility of using wheat straw after microwave-assisted hydrotropic pretreatment for efficient cellulosic ethanol production using high-gravity (HG) technology. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] Specific ion effects govern myriad biological phenomena, including protein–ligand interactions and enzyme activity. Despite recent advances, detailed understanding of the role of ion hydrophobicity in specific ion effects, and the intersection with hydrotropic effects, remains elusive. Short chain fatty acid sodium salts are simple amphiphiles which play an integral role in our gastrointestinal health. We hypothesise that increasing a fatty acid's hydrophobicity will manifest stronger salting-out behaviour. Here we study the effect of these amphiphiles on an exemplar thermoresponsive polymer brush system, conserving the carboxylate anion identity while varying anion hydrophobicity via the carbon chain length. Ellipsometry and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring were used to characterise the thermoresponse and viscoelasticity of the brush, respectively, whilst neutron reflectometry was used to reveal the internal structure of the brush. Diffusion-ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and computational investigations provide insight into polymer-ion interactions. Surface sensitive techniques unveiled a non-monotonic trend in salting-out ability with increasing anion hydrophobicity, revealing the bundle-like morphology of the ion-collapsed system. An intersection between ion-specific and hydrotropic effects was observed both experimentally and computationally; trending from good anti-hydrotrope towards hydrotropic behaviour with increasing anion hydrophobicity, accompanying a change in hydrophobic hydration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The therapeutic efficacy of topically administered drugs, however powerful, is largely affected by their bioavailability and, thus, ultimately, on their aqueous solubility and stability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of ionic liquids (ILs) as functional excipients to solubilise, stabilise, and prolong the ocular residence time of diacerein (DIA) in eye drop formulations. DIA is a poorly soluble and unstable anthraquinone prodrug, rapidly hydrolysed to rhein (Rhe), for the treatment of osteoarthritis. DIA has recently been evaluated as an antimicrobial agent for bacterial keratitis. Two ILs based on natural zwitterionic compounds were investigated: L-carnitine C6 alkyl ester bromide (Carn6), and betaine C6 alkyl ester bromide (Bet6). The stabilising, solubilising, and mucoadhesive properties of ILs were investigated, as well as their cytotoxicity to the murine fibroblast BALB/3T3 clone A31 cell line. Two IL–DIA-based eye drop formulations were prepared, and their efficacy against both Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa was determined. Finally, the eye drops were administered in vivo on New Zealand albino rabbits, testing their tolerability as well as their elimination and degradation kinetics. Both Bet6 and Carn6 have good potential as functional excipients, showing solubilising, stabilising, mucoadhesive, and antimicrobial properties; their in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo ocular tolerability pave the way for their future use in ophthalmic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein aggregation is the etiopathogenesis of the three most profound vision-threatening eye diseases: age-related cataract, presbyopia, and age-related macular degeneration. This perspective organizes known information on ATP and protein aggregation with a fundamental unrecognized function of ATP. With recognition that maintenance of protein solubility is related to the high intracellular concentration of ATP in cells, tissues, and organs, we hypothesize that (1) ATP serves a critical molecular function for organismal homeostasis of proteins and (2) the hydrotropic feature of ATP prevents pathological protein aggregation while assisting in the maintenance of protein solubility and cellular, tissue, and organismal function. As such, the metabolite ATP plays an extraordinarily important role in the prevention of protein aggregation in the leading causes of vision loss or blindness worldwide.

Polyglycerol dendrimers (PGD) exhibit unique properties such as drug delivery, drug solubilization, bioimaging, and diagnostics. In this study, PGD hydrogels were prepared and evaluated as devices for controlled drug release with good solubilization properties. The PGD hydrogels were prepared by crosslinking using ethylene glycol diglycidylether (EGDGE). The concentrations of EGDGE and PGDs were varied. The hydrogels were swellable in ethanol for loading paclitaxel (PTX). The amount of PTX in the hydrogels increased with the swelling ratio, which is proportional to EGDGE/OH ratio, meaning that heterogeneous crosslinking of PGD made high dense region of PGD molecules in the matrix. The hydrogels remained transparent after loading PTX and standing in water for one day, indicating that PTX was dispersed in the hydrogels without any crystallization in water. The results of FTIR imaging of the PTX-loaded PGD hydrogels revealed good dispersion of PTX in the hydrogel matrix. Sixty percent of the loaded PTX was released in a sink condition within 90 min, suggesting that the solubilized PTX would be useful for controlled release without any precipitation. Polyglycerol dendrimer hydrogels are expected to be applicable for rapid release of poorly water-soluble drugs, e.g., for oral administration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key elements influencing the efficiency of cellulosic ethanol production is the effective pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of microwave-assisted pretreatment of wheat stillage in the presence of sodium cumene sulphonate (NaCS) hydrotrope used for the production of second-generation bioethanol. As a result of microwave pretreatment, the composition of the wheat stillage biomass changed significantly when compared with the raw material used, before treatment. Microwave-assisted pretreatment with NaCS effectively reduced the lignin content and hemicellulose, making cellulose the dominant component of biomass, which accounted for 42.91 ± 0.10%. In post pretreatment, changes in biomass composition were also visible on FTIR spectra. The peaks of functional groups and bonds characteristic of lignins (C–O vibration in the syringyl ring, asymmetric bending in CH3, and aromatic skeleton C–C stretching) decreased. The pretreatment of the analyzed lignocellulosic raw material with NaCS resulted in the complete conversion of glucose to ethanol after 48 h of the process, with yield (in relation to the theoretical one) of above 91%. The highest observed concentration of ethanol, 23.57 ± 0.10 g/L, indicated the high effectiveness of the method used for the pretreatment of wheat stillage that did not require additional nutrient supplementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrotropes are a class of amphiphilic molecules that significantly increase the solubility of organic compounds in water. However, it cannot form well-organized structures, such as micelles by surfactants. Hydrotropes are extremely water-soluble surface-active organic salts which increase the solubility of practically insoluble or sparingly soluble organic compounds in water by almost 200 times. The fundamental physico-chemical properties of hydrotropes, hydrotropic mechanism, and interactions of the compounds with hydrotropes are well elaborated earlier. However, the use of hydrotropes in organic transformation fascinated new attention. This is the first review which explores various organic transformations comprising utilization hydrotropes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supramolecular systems have been formed based on morpholinium surfactants and hydrotropic additives (choline chloride and urea). The aggregation thresholds of individual and mixed systems, as well as the ability to act as micellar nanocontainers, were evaluated using a complex of physicochemical methods. It was shown that the introduction of hydrotropic compounds insignificantly affects the values of the critical micelle concentration in the systems, but promotes an increase in the solubilization capacity of the morpholinium surfactant without a hydroxyethyl fragment in the head group by 1.5–2 times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New alkyl ether carboxylates with a glyceryl spacer instead of ethylene glycol units have been synthesised using environmentally friendly methodology. A cascade synthesis of acetalisation and hydrogenolysis was developed to obtain products containing an alkyl chain linked to a glycerol unit bearing a polar carboxylate head. These products were methylated by using trimethyl phosphate to observe the influence of a free or methoxylated alcohol on the physicochemical properties. Finally, saponification gave the carboxylate anionic group of the new hydrotropes. Studying the amphiphilicity, the tolerance to sodium and calcium ions, and the solubilising power of these bio‐based ionic/nonionic hydrotropes has shown that they exhibit significantly improved application properties compared to similar petro‐based hydrotropes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) may be the most important biological small molecule. Since it was discovered in 1929, ATP has been regarded as life's energy reservoir. However, this compound means more to life. Its legend starts at the dawn of life and lasts to this day. ATP must be the basic component of ancient ribozymes and may facilitate the origin of structured proteins. In the existing organisms, ATP continues to construct ribonucleic acid (RNA) and work as a protein cofactor. ATP also functions as a biological hydrotrope, which may keep macromolecules soluble in the primitive environment and can regulate phase separation in modern cells. These functions are involved in the pathogenesis of aging-related diseases and breast cancer, providing clues to discovering anti-aging agents and precision medicine tactics for breast cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing research on lignin nanomaterials has been accompanied by idiosyncrasies in their preparation methods. Currently, methodologies for the synthesis of lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) are not economically viable and necessitate the utilization of hazardous solvents, thereby limiting their applicability in commercial-scale production. However, this disadvantage can be significantly reduced by employing an acid-based hydrotrope for LNPs preparation. The solubility of lignin from various sources in different hydrotropes (p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTS), sodium p-toluenesulfonate (STS), and maleic acid (MA)) was investigated. The solubility of lignin in hydrotropes is enhanced by a high content of aliphatic OH. Then, quaternary ammonium alkali lignin (QMAL) was dissolved in the hydrotropes system and self-assembled into pH-sensitive LNPs (PLNPs) with hydrodynamic diameters ranging from approximately 60 to 150 nm. PLNPs were applied in the encapsulation of drugs, and the encapsulation efficiency for three different water-soluble drugs was investigated. The drug loading capacity of indomethacin (INDM) reached as high as 87%, and the release rate reached to 86.76%. Furthermore, both STS@PLNPs and INDM-STS@PLNPs have good biocompatibility with NIH-3T3 cells. In conclusion, this study proposed a green way to prepare PLNPs using the electronegativity of hydrotropes. The hydrotrope-prepared PLNPs have promising applications in drug loading and controlled release fields. [Display omitted] • A green and convenient method for preparing lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) was presented. • LNPs were formed by self-assembly in a recyclable and non-toxic acid-based hydrotropes solution at room temperature. • LNPs can be produced from varieties of lignin species. • The various water-soluble or water-insoluble drugs can be efficiently encapsulated in the LNPs. • The drug-encapsulated LNPs have sustained release in the simulated intestinal fluid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The therapeutic efficacy of topically administered drugs, however powerful, is largely affected by their bioavailability and, thus, ultimately, on their aqueous solubility and stability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of ionic liquids (ILs) as functional excipients to solubilise, stabilise, and prolong the ocular residence time of diacerein (DIA) in eye drop formulations. DIA is a poorly soluble and unstable anthraquinone prodrug, rapidly hydrolysed to rhein (Rhe), for the treatment of osteoarthritis. DIA has recently been evaluated as an antimicrobial agent for bacterial keratitis. Two ILs based on natural zwitterionic compounds were investigated: L-carnitine C6 alkyl ester bromide (Carn6), and betaine C6 alkyl ester bromide (Bet6). The stabilising, solubilising, and mucoadhesive properties of ILs were investigated, as well as their cytotoxicity to the murine fibroblast BALB/3T3 clone A31 cell line. Two IL–DIA-based eye drop formulations were prepared, and their efficacy against both Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa was determined. Finally, the eye drops were administered in vivo on New Zealand albino rabbits, testing their tolerability as well as their elimination and degradation kinetics. Both Bet6 and Carn6 have good potential as functional excipients, showing solubilising, stabilising, mucoadhesive, and antimicrobial properties; their in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo ocular tolerability pave the way for their future use in ophthalmic applications.

A potential bioactive compound limonin is found in citrus fruits, especially tremendous extent in seeds. In this study, an attempt has been made to develop a novel and proficient extraction method by using the hydrotrope solution to recover limonin from lemon (Citrus limon L.) seeds. Initially, the extraction time (4 h) was screened by varying the time from 3 to 6 h by fixing the concentration of hydrotrope (sodium salicylate), raw material loading and temperature of the extraction. To enhance the yield of hydrotrope extraction, Box–Behnken experimental design (BBD) was proposed. The maximum yield of limonin recovered was 6.41 mg g−1 at optimized process conditions such as the hydrotrope concentration of 1.65 M, raw material loading of 8.08%, and temperature of 44°C. The obtained limonin yield in this study was higher compared to the other studies using different citrus seeds. The recovered limonin was identified by using Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Furthermore, the scavenging ability was evaluated for the extracted limonin, and it is proved to be a potent antioxidant. Therefore, the results revealed that the extraction of bioactive compounds using hydrotrope is efficient, eco-friendly and can also lower the usage of organic chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study outlines the interaction between an extensively used surface-active agent, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and a hydrotrope, 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzenedisulfonate (DHB), and the effect of temperature and concentration in the mixed-systems. The effect of DHB on the micellization of SDS at different temperatures was investigated by the conductometric method and surface tension measurements. The thermodynamic properties of SDS-DHB mixed systems were evaluated. The densities (ρ), dynamic viscosities (η), and kinematic viscosities (ν) of SDS in the presence and absence of DHB at various temperatures (293.15–333.15 K) with 5 K intervals have been investigated. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) value of SDS rise with an increase in temperature and drops with increasing concentration of DHB. With increasing temperature, the density, dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity of the pure SDS and mixed surfactant–hydrotrope (SDS-DHB) systems drop gradually. The synergistic effects are observed for the mixed surfactant-hydrotrope systems. The FTIR and Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic studies are used for characterization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The turmeric rhizome (Curcuma longa) contains curcuminoids embedded in the starch matrix. It is thus important to target starch hydrolysis to enhance extraction of curcuminoids. In the case of starch hydrolysis, α-amylase is more efficient when the starch is in a gelatinised form than when it is in its natural form. The present work includes hydrolysis of turmeric starch in its natural and gelatinised forms using α-amylase in hydrotrope solution (HS) and scCO2. The optimum rate of starch hydrolysis was obtained using 200 IU cm−3 of α-amylase, at reaction conditions of 6.5 pH at 328 K when 10% w/w of turmeric powder was stirred at 900 rpm in HSs. The hydrolysis in 15 MPa scCO2 at room temperature required a phase modifier and 40 min of residence time (RT). The enzyme treatment of turmeric powder in HSs increased the filtration rate for curcuminoid extraction (gelatinised and native) compared to untreated turmeric powder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key elements influencing the efficiency of cellulosic ethanol production is the effective pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of microwave-assisted pretreatment of wheat stillage in the presence of sodium cumene sulphonate (NaCS) hydrotrope used for the production of second-generation bioethanol. As a result of microwave pretreatment, the composition of the wheat stillage biomass changed significantly when compared with the raw material used, before treatment. Microwave-assisted pretreatment with NaCS effectively reduced the lignin content and hemicellulose, making cellulose the dominant component of biomass, which accounted for 42.91 ± 0.10%. In post pretreatment, changes in biomass composition were also visible on FTIR spectra. The peaks of functional groups and bonds characteristic of lignins (C–O vibration in the syringyl ring, asymmetric bending in CH3, and aromatic skeleton C–C stretching) decreased. The pretreatment of the analyzed lignocellulosic raw material with NaCS resulted in the complete conversion of glucose to ethanol after 48 h of the process, with yield (in relation to the theoretical one) of above 91%. The highest observed concentration of ethanol, 23.57 ± 0.10 g/L, indicated the high effectiveness of the method used for the pretreatment of wheat stillage that did not require additional nutrient supplementation.

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A green approach of combining hydrotrope assisted extraction with ultrasound was adopted to extract the polyphenols from tea leaves. This process significantly reduced extraction time and solvent quantity, while enhancing the quality of the final product. Sodium cumenesulfonate (NaCuS), sodium p-toluenesulfonate (NaPTS) and sodium xylenesulfonate (NaXS) were chosen for solubilizing tea polyphenols. Among the hydrotropes used, NaCuS proved to be efficient particularly in solubilizing tea polyphenols. The extraction process was thoroughly studied by varying factors such as the solid to solvent ratio (S/N), ultrasonic duration and temperature. Comprehensive solubility studies of polyphenols were conducted across different solvents, pH levels, temperatures, treatment durations and solid loadings. To optimize the experimental parameters, a central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM) was employed. The results demonstrated that a polyphenol extraction efficiency of 68.429% was achieved at a solid to solvent ratio of 0.05, ultrasonic time of 3.2 h and temperature of 49.9 °C. This research firmly established the effectiveness of ultrasound assisted extraction for obtaining polyphenols from green tea in a highly efficient manner. [Display omitted] • Studied the ultrasound assisted hydrotropic extraction for green tea polyphenols. • Thermodynamic properties were studied to determine the solubility of polyphenols. • Response Surface Methodology was used to study the optimization of extraction. • Sodium cumenesulfonate (NaCuS) was effective for 68.429 % extraction. • Extracted polyphenols were effective for 99% radical scavenging effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The forest biorefinery plays an important part in the evolving circular bioeconomy due to its capacity to produce a portfolio of bio-based and sustainable fuels, chemicals, and materials. To tap into its true potential, more efficient and environmentally benign methods are needed to fractionate woody biomass into its main components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) without reducing their potential for valorization. This work presents a sequential fractionation method for hardwood based on steam pretreatment (STEX) and hydrotropic extraction (HEX) with sodium xylene sulfonate. By prehydrolyzing the hemicellulose (STEX) and subsequently extract the lignin from the cellulose fraction (HEX), the major wood components can be recovered in separate process streams and be further valorized. Results Using autocatalyzed STEX and HEX, hemicellulose (> 70%) and lignin (~ 50%) were successfully fractionated and recovered in separate liquid streams and cellulose preserved (99%) and enriched (~ twofold) in the retained solids. Investigation of pretreatment conditions during HEX showed only incremental effects of temperature (150–190 °C) and hold-up time (2–8 h) variations on the fractionation efficiency. The hydrolyzability of the cellulose-rich solids was analyzed and showed higher cellulose conversion when treated with the combined process (47%) than with HEX alone (29%), but was inferior to STEX alone (75%). Protein adsorption and surface structure analysis suggested decreased accessibility due to the collapse of the fibrillose cellulose structure and an increasingly hydrophobic lignin as potential reasons. Conclusion This work shows the potential of sequential STEX and HEX to fractionate and isolate cellulose, hemicellulose, and a sulfur-free lignin in separate product streams, in an efficient, sustainable, and scalable process.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) may be the most important biological small molecule. Since it was discovered in 1929, ATP has been regarded as life’s energy reservoir. However, this compound means more to life. Its legend starts at the dawn of life and lasts to this day. ATP must be the basic component of ancient ribozymes and may facilitate the origin of structured proteins. In the existing organisms, ATP continues to construct ribonucleic acid (RNA) and work as a protein cofactor. ATP also functions as a biological hydrotrope, which may keep macromolecules soluble in the primitive environment and can regulate phase separation in modern cells. These functions are involved in the pathogenesis of aging-related diseases and breast cancer, providing clues to discovering anti-aging agents and precision medicine tactics for breast cancer.

The self-assembly of ionic surfactants in deep eutectic solvents has recently been demonstrated, opening up new possibilities in terms of the development of formulated products and templating of nanostructured materials. As it occurs in an aqueous environment, the solvophobic effect drives the formation of micelles in these solvents and specific-ion interactions alter the resulting structures. We hypothesized that the presence of hydrotropic salts would greatly affect the micellar structure in deep eutectic solvents, ultimately leading to the formation of worm-like aggregates. A systematic investigation performed on hydrotrope-surfactant assemblies in neat and hydrated 1:2 choline chloride:glycerol is presented. The effect of choline salicylate on the micellization of hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride at different hydrotrope-to-surfactant ratios was probed by contrast variation small-angle neutron scattering. Here the first investigation on salt-induced micellar growth in deep eutectic solvents is presented. The microscopic characterization of the system shows that the micelle-hydrotrope interaction in pure and hydrated deep eutectic solvents results in a significant increase in micelle elongation. The condensation of the hydrotrope on the micelle, which alters the effective monomer packing, leads to the formation of worm-like micelles with tunable morphology and flexibility. The results presented here present new possibilities in terms of self-assembly and co-assembly in neoteric solvents, where micelle morphology can be controlled through surfactant-salt interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushroom-like mesoporous and hexagonal ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized from plant extract and chemical method respectively, by co-precipitation method in aqueous medium. Different morphological forms of ZnO NPs were characterized by XRD, TGA, FESEM, EDX, FTIR, UV–Vis and BET. Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract and ultrasound irradiation have a crucial role in the formation of different morphologies of ZnO NPs. ZnO NPs synthesized from plant extract and hydrotrope show a synergistic effect that leads to efficient synthesis of benzylidenemalonitrile and tetraketone derivatives at room temperature in water. Simple preparation of the catalyst, excellent yields, reusability of catalyst with consistent activity and ease of product isolation are the most significant advantages of this green protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While drugs and other industrial chemicals are routinely studied to assess risks, many widely used chemicals have not been thoroughly evaluated. One such chemical, 4-methylcyclohexane methanol (MCHM), is an industrial coal-cleaning chemical that contaminated the drinking water supply in Charleston, WV, USA in 2014. While a wide range of ailments was reported following the spill, little is known about the molecular effects of MCHM exposure. We used the yeast model to explore the impacts of MCHM on cellular function. Exposure to MCHM dramatically altered the yeast transcriptome and the balance of metals in yeast. Underlying genetic variation in the response to MCHM, transcriptomics and, mutant analysis uncovered the role of the metal transporters, Arn2 and Yke4, to MCHM response. Expression of Arn2, which is involved in iron uptake, was lower in MCHM-tolerant yeast and loss of Arn2 further increased MCHM tolerance. Genetic variation within Yke4, an ER zinc transporter, also mediated response to MCHM, and loss of Yke4 decreased MCHM tolerance. The addition of zinc to MCHM-sensitive yeast rescued growth inhibition. In vitro assays demonstrated that MCHM acted as a hydrotrope and prevented protein interactions, while zinc induced the aggregation of proteins. We hypothesized that MCHM altered the structures of extracellular domains of proteins, and the addition of zinc stabilized the structure to maintain metal homeostasis in yeast exposed to MCHM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The structural details, viscosity trends and dynamic phenomena in t -butanol/water solutions are closely related on the molecular scales across the entire composition range. Utilizing the experimental small- and wide-angle x-ray scattering (SWAXS) method, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and the 'complemented-system approach' method developed in our group it is possible to comprehensively describe the structure-viscosity-dynamics relationship in such structurally versatile hydrogen-bonded molecular liquids, as well as in similar, self-assembling systems with pronounced molecular and supramolecular structures at the intra-, inter-, and supra-molecular scales. The SWAXS and x–ray diffraction experiments and MD simulations were performed for aqueous t -butanol solutions at 25 °C. Literature viscosity and self-diffusion data were also used. The interpretive power of the proposed scheme was demonstrated by the extensive and diverse results obtained for aqueous t –butanol solutions across the whole concentration range. Four composition ranges with qualitatively different structures and viscosity trends were revealed. The experimental and calculated zero-shear viscosities and molecular self-diffusion coefficients were successfully related to the corresponding structural details. The hydrogen bonds that were, along with hydrophobic effects, recognized as the most important driving force for the formation of t –butanol aggregates, show intriguing lifetime trends and thermodynamic properties of their formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resveratrol, a stilbenoid polyphenol compound found in the skin and seeds of black grapes, which is supposed to have biological activity as an anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-aging agent. Low oral bioavailability of resveratrol is determined by its low solubility in water. To overcome this, a biocompatible solubilization method is used to intensify the solubility of resveratrol. Hydrotropes (solubilizing agents) such as sodium caprylate, and sodium benzoate under a wide range of concentrations (0‒3 mol/L) and temperature (303–333 K) were used to study the aqueous solubility of resveratrol. It is observed that the solubility of resveratrol is enhanced by 16 times in the presence of sodium caprylate as hydrotrope. Thermodynamic properties like entropy, Gibbs free energy, and enthalpy were determined, and the solubilization process was found to be entropy-driven. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass combined with delignification is a condition for effective enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose, which is of key significance for the efficiency of the process of production of cellulosic ethanol. Becoming aware of the full range of changes in the structure of lignocellulose as a result of biomass pretreatment is important in view of the necessity to optimise the process of technological production of bioethanol. Our research was aimed at a comprehensive analysis of changes in structure of pine chip (softwood), beech chip (hardwood) and wheat straw (non-wood) biomasses resulting from a newly developed pretreatment method combining the use of hydrotrope in the form of sodium cumene sulfonate and microwave radiation. The performed analyses of the biomass composition indicate a high effectiveness of the proposed pretreatment method in the area of biomass delignification and hemicellulose removal. An effective removal of amorphous substances, i.e. lignin and hemicellulose, led to an increase in the crystallinity of pine chip biomass to 55%, and beech chips and wheat straw biomasses to 61%. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Abstract In this work, the aggregation behavior of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium p -toluenesulfonate (BmimTOS), a new type of cationic hydrotrope, was investigated, where two distinct inflection points C 1 and C 2 were reflected by the change of conductivity, micro-polarity, surface tension. Therefore, it is speculated that small aggregate was formed in BmimTOS aqueous solution after C 1 and structure change of these aggregates may be presented to form larger aggregates after C 2. The formation of aggregate and the change of the aggregate size were further confirmed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. However, as suggested by micro-polarity measurements, these aggregates are not typical micelle-like ones. Furthermore, such two-step aggregation behavior was shown to be presented at a wide temperature region from 288.15 K to 318.15 K; however, the phenomenon cannot be observed when the alkyl chain length on imidazolium cation was changed into ethyl-, hexyl-, or octyl-. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) from renewable lignocelluloses can be a valuable building block for a variety of applications and could contribute to the economic development in rural agricultural communities. Current technologies for producing LNPs are not cost effective and use toxic solvents. In this study, LNPs were produced by fractionating poplar wood at ≤80°C with a recyclable hydrotrope p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH) in an aqueous system. The dissolved lignin was separated as LNPs simply by diluting the spent liquor (SL) to the minimal hydrotrope concentration (HCmin) of 11.5%. The p-TsOH, a solid acid, can be easily recycled by re-concentrating the diluted SL after lignin separation. The LNP size, morphology, and surface charge were controlled by the dilution ratio, speed, pH, and ionic strength of the LNP sol. The LNPs were analyzed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and found to be fairly stable in terms of mean particle size and surface charge over a period of 2 weeks. Fractionation conditions also affected LNP properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediator is composed of multiple subunits conserved from yeast to humans and plays a central role in transcription. The tail components are not required for basal transcription but are required for responses to different stresses. While some stresses are familiar, such as heat, desiccation, and starvation, others are exotic, yet yeast can elicit a successful stress response. 4-Methylcyclohexane methanol (MCHM) is a hydrotrope that induces growth arrest in yeast. We found that a naturally occurring variation in the Med15 allele, a component of the Mediator tail, altered the stress response to many chemicals in addition to MCHM. Med15 contains two polyglutamine repeats (polyQ) of variable lengths that change the gene expression of diverse pathways. The Med15 protein existed in multiple isoforms and its stability was dependent on Ydj1, a protein chaperone. The protein level of Med15 with longer polyQ tracts was lower and turned over faster than the allele with shorter polyQ repeats. MCHM sensitivity via variation of Med15 was regulated by Snf1 in a Myc-tag-dependent manner. Tagging Med15 with Myc altered its function in response to stress. Genetic variation in transcriptional regulators magnified genetic differences in response to environmental changes. These polymorphic control genes were master variators.

Hydrotrope solutions provide safe and effective media for the microwave assisted extraction of andrographolide, the major bioactive chemical constituent of plant Andrographis paniculata. Microwave assisted extraction of androgpaholide was carried out by using hydrotropes, sodium benzoate and urea. The objective of this work were to determine the Minimum Hydrotrope Concentration (MHC) and to determine the effectiveness of each hydrotrope with respect to andrographolide at different system powers. The microwave assisted extractions of andrographolide were carried out at different concentration of hydrotropes (0.2-3M) and different system powers (39.9 and 119.7 Watt). Twenty grams of Andrographis paniculata dried powder were added to 200 ml of hydrotrope solutions and extracted in a microwave extractor for 15 minutes. The research result showed that the percentage of the microwave assisted extraction of andrographolide by using sodium benzoate and urea were up to 10.9% and 1.05% respectively. The Minimum Hydrotrope Concentration and the effectiveness of hydrotropes that was measured in term of Setschenow constant (Ks) were reported for two hydrotropes used in this study.

To exploit a green way to produce polymer nanoparticles using biodegradable and renewable macromolecules instead of petroleum-based ones, we initiated a novel and facile method to synthesize lignin nanoparticles (LNPs). The LNPs, having a hydrodynamic diameter ranging from ca. 80 to 230 nm, were formed by self-assembly in a recyclable and non-toxic aqueous sodium p-toluenesulfonate (pTsONa) solution at room temperature, with a lowest concentration of up to 48 g/L. We eliminated the unfavorable factors of restricted processing pH and lignin species by taking advantage of the hydrotropic chemistry and the synergistic dissociation of the entrapped pTsONa and intrinsic phenolic hydroxyl and carboxylic acid moieties of the LNPs. Because of the hydrotropic system, various water-soluble or water-insoluble drugs can be dissolved and encapsulated in the LNPs with an encapsulation efficiency of up to 90%. The drug-encapsulated LNPs also showed great properties, with sustained drug-releasing capability and biocompatibility. Furthermore, the unloaded drugs and free pTsONa could be easily recycled for multiple use, thereby achieving environmental sustainability. This synthesis approach with broad processing window could realize the industrial scale-up production of LNPs and have wide potential applications, including but not limited to versatile drug/bioactive macromolecule loading in the biomedical field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypericin (Hyp) is a hydrophobic pigment found in plants of the genus Hypericum which exhibits low levels of solubility in water. This work shows that the solubility of Hyp can be significantly increased through the addition of cromolyn disodium salt (DSCG). Performed studies using UV–VIS absorption and fluorescence spectroscopies demonstrate that Hyp remains in a predominantly biologically photodynamic active monomeric form in the presence of DSCG at concentrations ranging from 4.6 × 10 − 3 to 1.2 × 10 − 1 mol·L − 1 . The low association constant between Hyp and DSCG ( K a = 71.7 ± 2 M − 1 ), and the polarity value of 0.3 determined for Hyp in a DSCG-water solution, lead to a suggestion that the monomerization of Hyp in aqueous solution can be explained as a result of the hydrotropic effect of DSCG. This hydrotropic effect is most likely a result of interactions between two relative rigid aromatic rings of DSCG and a delocalized charge on the surface of the Hyp molecule. The triplet-triplet (T-T) electronic transition observed in is Hyp in the presence of DSCG suggests a possible production of reactive oxygen species once Hyp is irradiated with visible light in a DSCG aqueous solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]