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Background: Beyond nutrition, fruits and vegetables can be considered as natural sources of bioactive molecules, for which beneficial effects on human health are widely recognised. To improve food quality, soilless growing systems could represent a good strategy for promoting a sustainable food production chain, although the nutritional and nutraceutical properties of their products should be investigated in depth. The main quality traits and the volatile and non-volatile secondary metabolites of Solanum lycopersicum L., Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss and Ocimun basilicum L. grown in an aquaponics system and in organic farming were quantified and compared., Results: On a fresh basis, soil-grown P. crispum and O. basilicum showed significantly higher total phenolics and antioxidant activity compared to aquaponic crops, whereas, on a dry basis, both plants showed opposite results. Soil-grown S. lycopersicum was significantly richer in total phenolics, whereas the aquaponic type showed a higher antioxidant activity. Aquaponics induced the accumulation of resveratrol in P. crispum, rosmarinic acid and myricetin in O. basilicum, and lycopene in S. lycopersicum. Among the volatile compounds, in O. basilicum, linalool was the main constituent in both treatments, whereas τ-cadinol represented the second constituent in aquaponic crops. The volatile profiles of P. crispum did not differ significantly between the two cultivation methods., Conclusion: The overall quality of organic and aquaponics cultures appeared to be comparable. The results showed that aquaponic farming method can be an innovative, rapid and sustainable way of producing quality food. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.)

The FDA Produce Safety Rule states that water used for irrigation purposes, likely to come into contact with the edible portion of fruit and vegetables, must not exceed a defined limit of Escherichia coli populations. Although aquaponics has not been included in this guideline, it is worth investigating to establish a baseline for facilities to reference in produce production. Two microbial assays were performed, one a decoupled media-based aquaponics system over one year and another on a decoupled nutrient film technique (NFT) aquaponics system over 16 days. Water was sampled from each system over time to analyze changes of E. coli and coliforms. The geometric mean (GM) and statistical threshold variable (STV) were calculated based on E. coli populations from the irrigation source in each system. From the first experiment, it was determined, based on the FDA Produce Safety Rule, that E. coli must be monitored more closely from June to January as they were above the advised limit. The second experiment determined that E. coli and coliforms in the water significantly decreased over 16 days. Water should be held for 8 d and up to 16 d to reduce the likelihood of foodborne pathogens to contaminate produce., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: A floating system is a suitable low-cost hydroponic method for growing baby leaf vegetables. Among other, an important characteristic of the system is the use of large volume of nutrient solution which is characterized by high heat capacity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different root-zone temperatures on baby leaves of lettuce and rocket plants grown in a floating system under mild (spring) or extreme environmental conditions (summer and winter)., Results: Root-zone temperature was recorded in two tanks, one powered by a photovoltaic system and one where root-zone temperature was not controlled - this was used as a control tank. Photosynthetic parameters, yield, nutritional quality, and mineral composition were determined. In both baby leaf vegetables, during extreme weather conditions, yield was higher in the tanks with controlled root-zone temperature conditions than the control (+18.9% for rocket, and + 31.4% for baby lettuce), while quality parameters and chemical composition were not significantly affected. Stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis values were positively affected only during summer. On the other hand, control of root-zone temperature under mild weather conditions had no significant effect on baby lettuce and rocket., Conclusion: Control of the root-zone temperature could be a useful tool to improve productivity for baby lettuce and rocket crops cultivated in floating systems under extreme weather conditions. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.)

An aquaponic system is considered to be a sustainable food production solution that follows circular economy principles and the biomimetic natural system to reduce input and waste. It is the combination of two mainly productive systems, a recirculating aquaculture system consists of fish and crustaceans farmed in a tank and hydroponic cultivation consists of vegetable cultured in medium other than soil. Both these systems are well-known around the globe by their performance of production, quality, and verified food safety. An aquaponic system is an industrious mechanism which incorporates impeccably with sustainable growth of intensive agriculture. The existing literature regarding the aquaponic production covers different species of vegetables and fish, a variety of layouts of system, and climate conditions. However, there is a lack of knowledge that can systematically present the existing state-of-the-artwork in a systematic manner. So to overcome this limitation, the proposed research presents a systematic literature review in the field of urban aquaponics. This systematic literature review will help practitioners to take help from the existing literature and propose new solutions based on the available evidence in urban aquaponics., (© 2020 Rahmita Wirza and Shah Nazir, published by De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston.)

Peanut sprouts are a functional food material rich in phytochemicals, including trans-resveratrol. This study aimed to optimize the recovery of trans-resveratrol from peanut sprouts using a combination of peanut varieties and sawdust medium through accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and the response surface method (RSM). We also aimed to determine the antioxidant activity of this trans-resveratrol extract. Optimal fermentation periods of sawdust and peanut variety for cultivating peanut sprouts were determined on the basis of trans-resveratrol content via high-performance liquid chromatography. The extraction variables temperature, static time, and ethanol concentration were used to create a 20-sample set fit to a second-order polynomial equation through multiple regression analysis (R 2 = 0.8787, P < 0.01). Trans-resveratrol content (19.62 ± 2.33 µg/g) peaked in the Palgwang variety cultured in sawdust medium fermented for 45 days. Optimal conditions for ASE were determined regarding the extraction temperature (90.29 °C), static time (3.95 min), and solvent (81.54% EtOH/water), and the predicted trans-resveratrol content under optimal conditions was 30.23 µg/g. Sawdust medium was more effective in increasing the trans-resveratrol content than conventional hydroponics, and the optimized process of combining fermented sawdust cultivation for harvesting peanut sprouts with ASE has potential as an efficient method of obtaining mass quantities of trans-resveratrol from peanut sprouts with improved nutritional and functional properties. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study showed that sawdust medium is more effective than hydroponics in increasing the trans-resveratrol content in peanut sprouts. The recovery of trans-resveratrol from peanut sprouts and its antioxidant activity were optimized via accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and the response surface methodology (RSM). The optimized process of combining fermented sawdust cultivation for harvesting peanut sprouts with ASE potentially provides an efficient method to obtain mass quantities of trans-resveratrol from peanut sprouts with improved nutritional and functional properties., (© 2020 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

Background: The environmental risk from the application of synthetic chelates has led to the use of biodegradable complexes to correct Fe deficiency in plants. In this article, the Fe oxidation state, the Fe:ligand ratio, and the molecular weight distribution for heptagluconate (G7) and gluconate (G6) are considered as key factors for the efficacy of complexes as fertilizers. Complexes with different Fe:ligand ratios were prepared and analyzed by gel filtration chromatography (GFC). The ability of Fe:ligand ratios to provide Fe to tomato in hydroponics and soybean in calcareous soil was tested and compared with synthetic chelates (Fe 3+ :HBED and Fe 3+ :EDTA)., Results: G7 presented greater capacity to complex both Fe(II) and Fe(III) than G6, but the Fe(II) complexes exhibited poor stability at pH 9 and oxidation in solution. Gel filtration chromatography demonstrated the polynuclear nature of the Fe 3+ :G7 at various ratios. The effectiveness of the Fe fertilizers depend on the Fe 3+ :ligand ratio and the ligand type, the Fe 3+ :G7 (1:1 and 1:2) being the most effective. Fe 3+ :G7 (1:1) also presented a better response for the uptake of other micronutrients., Conclusion: Fe 3+ :G7 molar ratios have been shown to be critical for plant Fe uptake under hydroponic conditions and with calcareous soil. Thus, the Fe 3+ :G7 at equimolar ratio and 1:2 molar ratio can be an environmentally friendly alternative to less degradable synthetic chelates to correct Fe chlorosis in strategy I plants. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.)

This study investigated potential contamination sources in a commercial, closed hydroponic system. Water, substrate and lettuce (Lactuca sativa) samples were evaluated for microbiological indicator populations, including aerobic plate count (APC), coliform bacteria (CB) and yeast and mould (YM). Listeria spp. detection via cultural enrichment and agglutination was negative for all samples. Peat moss substrate (postharvest) had the highest counts for APC (6·8 log CFU per g), CB (4·5 log MPN per g) and YM (5·1 and 4·8 log CFU per g respectively). Roots embedded in plugs demonstrated counts for all populations nearly as high as the substrate. Among water samples, a seedling water reservoir housing germinated plants yielded the highest count for APC (5·1 log CFU per g) and CB (2·4 log MPN per g) likely due to the large numbers of plugs and their close proximity in the reservoir. Harvested lettuce leaves demonstrated higher APC (4·1 log CFU per g) than preharvest leaves (1·7 log CFU per g) due to the transfer of microbes from the root ball. These data suggest that substrates are a significant potential source of contamination in hydroponic systems and likely facilitate microbial transfer to harvested leaves. There is, therefore, the need to further investigate mitigation of potential contamination events. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Hydroponic production is known to provide safe, clean produce. This study, however, suggests that the hydroponic substrate (peat moss plug) is a possible source of contamination in the hydroponic system. This finding is important as most harvested hydroponic lettuces are packaged and sold with substrate and root ball intact. This implies a high probability of microbial transfer from the root ball to edible harvested lettuce leaves., (© 2019 The Society for Applied Microbiology.)

During the evolution of the human, agriculture and land utilization was inevitably connected with survival in nature. Human activity was not only restricted to the production of agricultural products but also extended into many other sectors, such as the production of several industrial-made products, mining, and usage of fossil fuels as a standard method of generating electricity. However, the intense urbanization phenomenon ultimately caused, during the last few decades, the degradation of our natural environment. As a result, the quality (and quantity) of produced food we consume has significantly decreased. The need for the evolution of alternative methods of cultivation is constant and always a hot topic, especially in order to confront the multiple problems that conventional agriculture has. Hydroponics, an innovative cultivation method, comes to solve many of these problems.

Background: A fully automated flow injection analysis (FIA) system was developed for determination of phosphate ion in nutrient solutions. This newly developed FIA system is a portable, rapid and sensitive measuring instrument that allows on-line analysis and monitoring of phosphate ion concentration in nutrient solutions. The molybdenum blue method, which is widely used in FIA phosphate analysis, was adapted to the developed FIA system. The method is based on the formation of ammonium Mo(VI) ion by reaction of ammonium molybdate with the phosphate ion present in the medium. The Mo(VI) ion then reacts with ascorbic acid and is reduced to the spectrometrically measurable Mo(V) ion. New software specific for flow analysis was developed in the LabVIEW development environment to control all the components of the FIA system. The important factors affecting the analytical signal were identified as reagent flow rate, injection volume and post-injection flow path length, and they were optimized using Box-Behnken experimental design and response surface methodology., Results: The optimum point for the maximum analytical signal was calculated as 0.50 mL min -1 reagent flow rate, 100 µL sample injection volume and 60 cm post-injection flow path length. The proposed FIA system had a sampling frequency of 100 samples per hour over a linear working range of 3-100 mg L -1 (R 2  = 0.9995). The relative standard deviation (RSD) was 1.09% and the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.34 mg L -1 ., Conclusion: Various nutrient solutions from a tomato-growing hydroponic greenhouse were analyzed with the developed FIA system and the results were found to be in good agreement with vanadomolybdate chemical method findings. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.)

The number of plant factories in which crops are cultivated in an artificial environment has been increasing every year. In cultivation techniques involving hydroponics, plants are supplied with a circulating nutrient solution, which can become contaminated by pathogens that can propagate and spread throughout plant factories. Therefore, strategies to disinfect hydroponic nutrient solutions are needed. In this study, we developed a new disinfection device equipped with an ultraviolet A (UVA) light emitting diode (LED) that can be used to disinfect hydroponic nutrient solutions in plant factories. We first evaluated the basic disinfection capability of the device and then estimated its bactericidal effect in a small scale model system. The log survival ratio was related to UVA irradiation fluence and the volume of nutrient solution. From the assay results, we devised a kinetics equation to describe the relationship between nutrient solution volume, log survival ratio, and UVA fluence. Together our results show that UVA irradiation could be used to disinfect hydroponic nutrient solutions, and the derived kinetics equations can be used to determine optimal conditions, such as nutrient solution volume, UVA irradiation, and killing activity, to develop devices that disinfect hydroponic nutrient solutions. J. Med. Invest. 65:171-176, August, 2018.

N 2 O production in aquaponics is an inevitable concern when aquaponics is developed as a future production system. In the present study, two attempts were applied to mitigate N 2 O emission from aquaponics, i.e., aeration in hydroponic bed (HA) and addition of polylactic acid (PLA) into fillers (PA). Results showed that N 2 O emission from HA and PA was decreased by 47.1-58.1% and 43.2-74.9% respectively compared with that in control. Denitrification was proved to be the main emission pathway in all treatments, representing 62.4%, 86.4%, and 75.8% of the total N 2 O emission in HA, PA, and control, respectively. However, production of plants in HA was severely impaired, which was only 3.04 ± 0.39 kg/m 2 , while in PA and control, plants yields were 4.87 ± 0.56 kg/m 2 and 4.33 ± 0.58 kg/m 2 . Combining the environmental and economic benefits, adding PLA in aquaponics may have a better future when developing and applying aquaponics systems.

An experimental design mimicking natural plant-microbe interactions is very important to delineate the complex plant-microbe signaling processes. Arabidopsis thaliana-Agrobacterium tumefaciens provides an excellent model system to study bacterial pathogenesis and plant interactions. Previous studies of plant-Agrobacterium interactions have largely relied on plant cell suspension cultures, the artificial wounding of plants, or the artificial induction of microbial virulence factors or plant defenses by synthetic chemicals. However, these methods are distinct from the natural signaling in planta, where plants and microbes recognize and respond in spatial and temporal manners. This work presents a hydroponic cocultivation system where intact plants are supported by metal mesh screens and cocultivated with Agrobacterium. In this cocultivation system, no synthetic phytohormone or chemical that induces microbial virulence or plant defense is supplemented. The hydroponic cocultivation system closely resembles natural plant-microbe interactions and signaling homeostasis in planta. Plant roots can be separated from the medium containing Agrobacterium, and the signaling and responses of both the plant hosts and the interacting microbes can be investigated simultaneously and systematically. At any given timepoint/interval, plant tissues or bacteria can be harvested separately for various "omics" analyses, demonstrating the power and efficacy of this system. The hydroponic cocultivation system can be easily adapted to study: 1) the reciprocal signaling of diverse plant-microbe systems, 2) signaling between a plant host and multiple microbial species (i.e. microbial consortia or microbiomes), 3) how nutrients and chemicals are implicated in plant-microbe signaling, and 4) how microbes interact with plant hosts and contribute to plant tolerance to biotic or abiotic stresses.

Rhizosecretion has many advantages for the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals, notably facile downstream processing from hydroponic medium. The aim of this study was to increase yields of the HIV microbicide candidate, Cyanovirin-N (CV-N), obtained using this production platform and to develop a simplified methodology for its downstream processing from hydroponic medium. Placing hydroponic cultures on an orbital shaker more than doubled the concentration of CV-N in the hydroponic medium compared to plants which remained stationary, reaching a maximum of approximately 20μg/ml in one week, which is more than 3 times higher than previously reported yields. The protein composition of the hydroponic medium, the rhizosecretome, was characterised in plants cultured with or without the plant growth regulator alpha-napthaleneacetic acid by LC-ESI-MS/MS, and CV-N was the most abundant protein. The issue of large volumes in the rhizosecretion system was addressed by using ion exchange chromatography to concentrate CV-N and partially remove impurities. The semi-purified CV-N was demonstrated to bind to HIV gp120 in an ELISA and to neutralise HIVBa-L with an IC50 of 6nM in a cell-based assay. Rhizosecretion is therefore a practicable and inexpensive method for the production of functional CV-N., (Copyright © 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Korean ginseng) is a popular herbal medicine. It has been used in Chinese and Oriental medicines since thousands of years. Ginseng products are generally used as a tonic and an adaptogen to resist the adverse influence of a wide range of physical, chemical and biological factors, and to restore homeostasis. Ginsenosides or ginseng saponins are the principal active ingredients of ginseng. Since ginseng cultivation process is very slow and needs specific environment for field cultivation, cell and tissue cultures are sought as alternatives for the production of ginseng biomass and bioactive compounds. In this chapter, we focus on methods of induction of adventitious roots from ginseng roots, establishment of adventitious root suspension cultures using bioreactors, procedures for processing of adventitious roots, and analysis of ginsenosides by high pressure liquid chromatography.

Treatment wetlands (TWs) efficiently remove many pollutants including a several log order reduction of pathogens from influent to effluent; however, there is evidence to suggest that pathogen cells are sequestered in a subsurface wetland and may remain viable months after inoculation. Escherichia coli is a common pathogen in domestic and agricultural wastewater and the O157:H7 strain causes most environmental outbreaks in the United States. To assess attachment of E. coli to the TW rhizosphere, direct measurements of E. coli levels were taken. Experiments were performed in chemostats containing either Teflon nylon as an abiotic control or roots of Carex utriculata or Schoenoplectus acutus. Flow of simulated wastewater through the chemostat was set to maintain a 2 hour residence time. The influent was inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 containing DsRed fluorescent protein. Root samples were excised and analyzed via epifluorescent microscopy. E. coli O157:H7 was detected on the root surface at 2 hours after inoculation, and were visible as single cells. Microcolonies began forming at 24 hours post-inoculation and were detected for up to 1 week post-inoculation. Image analysis determined that the number of microcolonies with >100 cells increased 1 week post-inoculation, confirming that E. coli O157:H7 is capable of growth within biofilms surrounding wetland plant roots.

Hydroponic systems used for growing potted ornamentals in greenhouses are commonly ebb-and-flow irrigation systems. The drainage water is usually recycled to save water and nutrients. To avoid the spread of pathogens in these closed irrigation systems, disinfection of the recycled water is standard practice. Growers can use slow sand filtration or UV-radiation techniques, but these methods are often either not sulted for specific problems or they require an excessively large investment. The objective of this study was to test less expensive but effective alternative disinfection systems. The efficacy of five disinfection systems against fungi and oomycetes was determined: Aqua-Hort (based on Cu-ions), Reciclean (performic acid), D1-OX Forte (CIO2), ECA (electrochemically activated water = anodic oxidation: hypochlorite and free radicals) and Newtec (also anodic oxidation). These five systems and a no-sterilization control were integrated in small closed ebb-and-flow circuits with nutrient solution reservoirs of 400 L each. Activity against Fusarium was excellent with ECA, good with Newtec and DI-OX Forte, moderate with high doses of Reciclean (250 ppm H2O2 and poor with the Aqua-Hort. There was no Pythium in the ECA and Newtec systems, while still so in the Aqua-Hort system, even at high doses (up to 7 ppm Cu++). Although the Reciclean (up to 100 ppm H2O2) and Aqua-Hort systems did not perform well against the pathogens, they did very well against algae; especially Reciclean was also useful against duckweed in water and liverwort on soil substrates. Concentrations of total Cl were elevated in water, substrate and plants after treatments with ECA and Newtec; other accumulations were Cu (Aqua-Hort), Na and SO4 (DI-OX Forte). However, only on a limited number of plant species these accumulations produced phytotoxic effects.

Hydroponics is a water, energy, space, and cost efficient system for growing plants in constrained spaces or land exhausted areas. Precise control of hydroponic nutrients is essential for growing healthy plants and producing high yields. In this article we report for the first time on a new computer-operated analytical platform which can be readily used for the determination of essential nutrients in hydroponic growing systems. The liquid-handling system uses inexpensive components (i.e., peristaltic pump and solenoid valves), which are discretely computer-operated to automatically condition, calibrate and clean a multi-probe of solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). These ISEs, which are based on carbon nanotubes, offer high portability, robustness and easy maintenance and storage. With this new computer-operated analytical platform we performed automatic measurements of K(+), Ca(2+), NO3(-) and Cl(-) during tomato plants growth in order to assure optimal nutritional uptake and tomato production., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Selenium is recognised as an essential micronutrient for humans and animals. One of the main sources of selenocompounds in the human diet is vegetables. Therefore, this study deals with the Se species present in different edible sprouts grown in Se-enriched media. We grew alfalfa, lentil and soy in a hydroponic system amended with soluble salts, containing the same proportion of Se, in the form of Se(VI) and Se(IV). Total Se in the sprouts was determined by acidic digestion in a microwave system and by ICP/MS. Se speciation was carried out by enzymatic extraction (Protease XIV) and measured by LC-ICP/MS. The study shows that the Se content of plants depends on the content in the growth culture, and that part of the inorganic Se was biotransformed mainly into SeMet. These results contribute to our understanding of the uptake of inorganic Se and its biotransformation by edible plants., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Silicon can stimulate natural defense mechanisms in plants, reducing foliar diseases like powdery arid downy mildew on several crops, including lettuce. The effect of silicate on Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lactucae was evaluated under greenhouse conditions on lettuce grown in soilless systems. Silicon, as potassium silicate, was added at 100 mg L(-1) of nutrient solution at three levels of electrical conductivity; 1.5-1.6 mS cm(-1) (E.C.1), 3.0-3.2 mS cm(-1) (E.C.2) and 4-4.2 mS cm(-1) (E.C.3). Pots containing lettuce plants were first inoculated with F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae (3x10(5) chlamidospores ml(-1)) 15-20 days before transplanting. Disease severity and physiological parameters, including chlorophyll content, were analyzed weekly after transplanting. The addition of potassium silicate slightly reduced Fusarium wilt, at all levels of electrical conductivity under study, compared to the control. On the contrary, the increase of electrical conductivity of the nutrient solution showed no effect on the disease. The use of silicon was previously demonstrated to significantly reduce downy mildew on lettuce in soilless systems, and in this trial it demonstrated to slightly reduce disease severity of an important soil-borne pathogen like F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae, suggesting the possibility to apply it successfully in soilless crops.

A novel system of nanofluidics trapping and delivery, which is known as a tissue culture system is proposed. By using the intense optical pulse(i.e., a soliton pulse) and a system constructed by a liquid core waveguide, the optical vortices (gradient optical fields/wells) can be generated, where the trapping tools in the same way as the optical tweezers in the PANDA ring resonator can be formed. By controlling the suitable parameters, the intense optical vortices can be generated within the PANDA ring resonator, in which the nanofluidics can be trapped and moved (transported) dynamically within the Tissue culture system(a wavelength router), which can be used for tissue culture and delivery in the hydroponic plant system.

The growths of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) were evaluated in recirculation aquaponic system (RAS). Fish production performance, plant growth and nutrient removal were measured and their dependence on hydraulic loading rate (HLR) was assessed. Fish production did not differ significantly between hydraulic loading rates. In contrast to the fish production, the water spinach yield was significantly higher in the lower hydraulic loading rate. Fish production, plant growth and percentage nutrient removal were highest at hydraulic loading rate of 1.28 m/day. The ratio of fish to plant production has been calculated to balance nutrient generation from fish with nutrient removal by plants and the optimum ratio was 15-42 gram of fish feed/m(2) of plant growing area. Each unit in RAS was evaluated in terms of oxygen demand. Using specified feeding regime, mass balance equations were applied to quantify the waste discharges from rearing tanks and treatment units. The waste discharged was found to be strongly dependent on hydraulic loading rate., (2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Arabidopsis thaliana is one of the most widely used model organisms in plant sciences. Because of the increasing knowledge in the understanding of its molecular pathways, a reproducible and stable growth set-up for obtaining uniform plants becomes more important. In order to be able to easily harvest and study both roots and shoots, and to allow simple exposure to water-soluble toxic substances, a hydroponic system is the desired cultivation method for controlled plant growth. Based on earlier developed hydroponic cultivation protocols, a hydroponic set-up was optimized and statistically validated using linear mixed-effects models. In order to determine important components that influence the level of variability in a hydroponic set-up, stress-related indicators were examined at the biochemical as well as at the molecular level. It is highly recommended that statistical as well as biological assumptions are carried out before post-analyses are performed. Therefore, we suggest a model where factors that influence variability such as the usage of different pots and harvesting on different times are taken into account in the analyses. Furthermore, in contrast to what has been reported in earlier studies, our findings indicate that continuous aeration of the hydroponic solution is highly important.

Objective: To develop a ground-based experimental prototype of space vegetable-cultivating facility (GEPSVF), so as to solve the main key techniques related to higher plant cultivation in space environmental conditions, and to further lay a foundation for future development and application of the prototype of space vegetable-growing facility., Method: Based on detailed demonstration and design of technique plan, the blueprint design and machining of components, whole facility installment, debugging, trial operations and verification experiments were done., Result: The parameters in the growing chamber such as temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, total pressure, O2 partial pressure, CO2 partial pressure and water content of the growing media were totally and effectively controlled; the light source was electronic fluorescent lamp; the average vegetable-producing output reached 60 g (fresh weight) d-1., Conclusion: The prototype could operate stably; its actual performance indexes achieved the expected ones basically; some of its operating principles can adapt to space microgravity condition. Therefore, the prototype is a good beginning for future development of space vegetable-producing facilities.

Five plants were examined for their ability to remove nutrients from aquaculture wastewater and suitability as fish feed: alfalfa, white clover, oat, fall rye, barley. The seeds were first germinated in water in a hydroponic system, and the plants were fed wastewater from Tilapia production facility. Clover and alfalfa seeds were infected with fungus shortly after germination, and their roots were completely destroyed by day 14. Oat, rye and barley had the fastest growth and showed greater tolerance to fungal disease compared with alfalfa and clover. Although substantial amounts of soluble and insoluble substances were released by the seeds during the germination period, the plants were able to remove all the pollutants in wastewater and significant portions of those released substances. The total reductions in total solids, COD, NO3-N, NO2-N, phosphate and potassium ranged from 54.7% to 91.0%, 56.0% to 91.5%, 82.9% to 98.1%, 95.9% to 99.5%, 54.5% to 93.6% and 99.6% to 99.8%, respectively. Oat, barley and rye grow well in this type of hydroponic system and can be used as a fish feed after being supplemented with fat, Ca, Na, Mn and Fe. Oil seeds and the chlorides of these elements could be added to these plants when formulating the fish feed. For a continuous operation, a two-unit system could be configured to allow for one week germination and one week cleaning and startup in one unit while the other unit is in operation.

Background: Arabidopsis thaliana is now the model organism for genetic and molecular plant studies, but growing conditions may still impair the significance and reproducibility of the experimental strategies developed. Besides the use of phytotronic cabinets, controlling plant nutrition may be critical and could be achieved in hydroponics. The availability of such a system would also greatly facilitate studies dealing with root development. However, because of its small size and rosette growth habit, Arabidopsis is hardly grown in standard hydroponic devices and the systems described in the last years are still difficult to transpose at a large scale. Our aim was to design and optimize an up-scalable device that would be adaptable to any experimental conditions., Results: An hydroponic system was designed for Arabidopsis, which is based on two units: a seed-holder and a 1-L tank with its cover. The original agar-containing seed-holder allows the plants to grow from sowing to seed set, without transplanting step and with minimal waste. The optimum nitrate supply was determined for vegetative growth, and the flowering response to photoperiod and vernalization was characterized to show the feasibility and reproducibility of experiments extending over the whole life cycle. How this equipment allowed to overcome experimental problems is illustrated by the analysis of developmental effects of nitrate reductase deficiency in nia1nia2 mutants., Conclusion: The hydroponic device described in this paper allows to drive small and large scale cultures of homogeneously growing Arabidopsis plants. Its major advantages are its flexibility, easy handling, fast maintenance and low cost. It should be suitable for many experimental purposes.

The assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) as a permanent experimental outpost has provided the opportunity for quality plant research in space. To take advantage of this orbital laboratory, engineers and scientists at the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics (WCSAR), University of Wisconsin-Madison, developed a plant growth facility capable of supporting plant growth in the microgravity environment. Utilizing this Advanced Astroculture (ADVASC) plant growth facility, an experiment was conducted with the objective to grow Arabidopsis thaliana plants from seed-to-seed on the ISS. Dry Arabidopsis seeds were anchored in the root tray of the ADVASC growth chamber. These seeds were successfully germinated from May 10 until the end of June 2001. Arabidopsis plants grew and completed a full life cycle in microgravity. This experiment demonstrated that ADVASC is capable of providing environment conditions suitable for plant growth and development in microgravity. The normal progression through the life cycle, as well as the postflight morphometric analyses, demonstrate that Arabidopsis thaliana does not require the presence of gravity for growth and development., (c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This experiment was conducted as part of a risk mitigation payload aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-101. The objectives were to test a newly developed water delivery system, and to determine the optimal combination of water volume and substrate for the imbibition and germination of flax (Linum usitatissimum) seeds in space. Two different combinations of germination paper were tested for their ability to absorb, distribute, and retain water in microgravity. A single layer of thick germination paper was compared with one layer of thin germination paper under a layer of thick paper. Paper strips were cut to fit snugly into seed cassettes, and seeds were glued to them with the micropyle ends pointing outward. Water was delivered in small increments that traveled through the paper via capillary action. Three water delivery volumes were tested, with the largest (480 microliters) outperforming the 400 microliters and 320 microliters volumes for percent germination (90.6%) and root growth (mean=4.1 mm) during the 34-hour spaceflight experiment. The ground control experiment yielded similar results, but with lower rates of germination (84.4%) and shorter root lengths (mean=2.8 mm). It is not clear if the roots emerged more quickly in microgravity and/or grew faster than the ground controls. The single layer of thick germination paper generally exhibited better overall growth than the two layered option. Significant seed position effects were observed in both the flight and ground control experiments. Overall, the design of the water delivery system, seed cassettes and the germination paper strip concept was validated as an effective method for promoting seed germination and root growth under microgravity conditions., (c2003 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A fixed-film (biofilm) reactor was designed and its performance was determined at various retention times. The goal was to find the optimal retention time for recycling plant nutrients in an advanced life support system, to minimize the size, mass, and volume (hold-up) of a production model. The prototype reactor was tested with aqueous leachate from wheat crop residue at 24, 12, 6, and 3 h hydraulic retention times (HRTs). Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrates and other plant nutrients, carbohydrates, total phenolics, and microbial counts were monitored to characterize reactor performance. BOD removal decreased significantly from 92% at the 24 h HRT to 73% at 3 h. Removal of phenolics was 62% at the 24 h retention time, but 37% at 3 h. Dissolved oxygen concentrations, nitric acid consumption, and calcium and magnesium removals were also affected by HRT. Carbohydrate removals, carbon dioxide (CO2) productions, denitrification, potassium concentrations, and microbial counts were not affected by different retention times. A 6 h HRT will be used in future studies to determine the suitability of the bioreactor effluent for hydroponic plant production.

Objective. To develop a nutrient delivery system for space vegetable planting prototype facility to be used in future space station, and to preliminarily testify its feasibility through ground-based demonstration experiments. Method. A nutrient delivery system in a space vegetable planting prototype facility was designed and fabricated, and ground based demonstration experiments of plant cultivation were conducted. Result. Nutrient could be steadily delivered to plant cultivation matrixes through capillary action, water content of planting matrixes could be controlled automatically and maintained constant, and the planted material lettuce showed basically normal morphology and color. Conclusion. The nutrient delivery system in a space vegetable planting prototype facility could basically meet the requirements for plant nutrient delivery under space microgravity environmental condition.

Future long duration, manned space flight missions will require life support systems that minimize resupply requirements and ultimately approach self-sufficiency in space. Bioregenerative life support systems are a promising approach, but they are far from mature. Early in the development of the NASA Controlled Ecological Life Support System Program, the idea of onboard cultivation of salad-type vegetables for crew consumption was proposed as a first step away from the total reliance on resupply for food in space. Since that time, significant advances in space-based plant growth hardware have occurred, and considerable flight experience has been gained. This paper revisits the "Salad Machine" concept and describes recent developments in subsystem technologies for both plant root and shoot environments that are directly relevant to the development of such a facility.

A dehumidification system for low gravity plant growth experiments requires the generation of no free-liquid condensate and the recovery of water for reuse. In the systems discussed in this paper, the membrane is a barrier between the humid air phase and a liquid-coolant water phase. The coolant water temperature combined with a transmembrane pressure differential establishes a water flux from the humid air into the coolant water. Building on the work of others, we directly compared different hydrophilic membranes for humidity control. In a direct comparison of the hydrophilic membranes, hollow fiber cellulose ester membranes were superior to metal and ceramic membranes in the categories of condensation flux per surface area, ease of start-up, and stability. However, cellulose ester membranes were inferior to metal membranes in one significant category, durability. Dehumidification systems using mixed cellulose ester membranes failed after operational times of only hours to days. We propose that the ratio of fluid surface area to membrane material area (approximately = membrane porosity) controls the relative performances among membranes. In addition, we clarified design equations for operational parameters such as the transmembrane pressure differential. This technology has several potential benefits related to earth environmental issues including the minimization of airborne pathogen release and higher energy efficiency in air conditioning equipment. Utilizing these study results, we designed, constructed, and flew on the space shuttle missions a membrane-based dehumidification system for a plant growth chamber.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) plants were grown hydroponically, using continuously recirculating nutrient solution. Two culture tray designs were tested; one tray design used only nutrient solution, while the other used a sphagnum-filled pod development compartment just beneath the cover and above the nutrient solution. Both trays were fitted with slotted covers to allow developing gynophores to reach the root zone. Peanut seed yields averaged 350 gm-2 dry mass, regardless of tray design, suggesting that substrate is not required for hydroponic peanut production.

Water transport through a microporous tube-soil-plant system was investigated by measuring the response of soil and plant water status to step change reductions in the water pressure within the tubes. Soybeans were germinated and grown in a porous ceramic 'soil' at a porous tube water pressure of -0.5 kpa for 28 d. During this time, the soil matric potential was nearly in equilibrium with tube water pressure. Water pressure in the porous tubes was then reduced to either -1.0, -1.5 or -2.0 kPa. Sap flow rates, leaf conductance and soil, root and leaf water potentials were measured before and after this change. A reduction in porous tube water pressure from -0.5 to -1.0 or -1.5 kPa did not result in any significant change in soil or plant water status. A reduction in porous tube water pressure to -2.0 kPa resulted in significant reductions in sap flow, leaf conductance, and soil, root and leaf water potentials. Hydraulic conductance, calculated as the transpiration rate/delta psi between two points in the water transport pathway, was used to analyse water transport through the tube-soil-plant continuum. At porous tube water pressures of -0.5 to-1.5 kPa soil moisture was readily available and hydraulic conductance of the plant limited water transport. At -2.0 kPa, hydraulic conductance of the bulk soil was the dominant factor in water movement.

After initial emphasis on large-scale baseline crop tests, the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Breadboard project has begun to evaluate long-term operation of the biomass production system with increasing material closure. Our goal is to define the minimum biological processing necessary to make waste streams compatible with plant growth in hydroponic systems, thereby recycling nutrients into plant biomass and recovering water via atmospheric condensate. Initial small and intermediate-scale studies focused on the recycling of nutrients contained in inedible plant biomass. Studies conducted between 1989-1992 indicated that the majority of nutrients could be rapidly solubilized in water, but the direct use of this crop "leachate" was deleterious to plant growth due to the presence of soluble organic compounds. Subsequent studies at both the intermediate scale and in the large-scale Biomass Production Chamber (BPC) have indicated that aerobic microbiological processing of crop residue prior to incorporation into recirculating hydroponic solutions eliminated any phytotoxic effect, even when the majority of the plant nutrient demand was provided from recycled biomass during long term studies (i.e. up to 418 days). Current and future studies are focused on optimizing biological processing of both plant and human waste streams.

Sweetpotato is one of several crops recommended by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for bioregenerative life support studies. One of the objectives of the Tuskegee University NASA Center is to optimize growth conditions for adaptability of sweetpotatoes for closed bioregenerative systems. The role of nutrient solution management as it impacts yield has been one of the major thrusts in these studies. Nutrient solution management protocol currently used consists of a modified half Hoagland solution that is changed at 14-day intervals. Reservoirs are refilled with deionized water if the volume of the nutrient solution was reduced to 8 liters or less before the time of solution change. There is the need to recycle and replenish nutrient solution during crop growth, rather than discard at 14 day intervals as previously done, in order to reduce waste. Experiments were conducted in an environmental growth room to examine the effects of container size on the growth of several sweetpotato genotypes grown under a nutrient replenishment protocol. Plants were grown from vine cuttings of 15cm length and were planted in 0.15 x 0.15 x 1.2m growth channels using a closed nutrient film technique system. Nutrient was supplied in a modified half strength Hoagland's solution with a 1:2.4 N:K ratio. Nutrient replenishment protocol consisted of daily water replenishment to a constant volume of 30.4 liters in the small containers and 273.6 liters in the large container. Nutrients were replenished as needed when the EC of the nutrient solution fell below 1200 mhos/cm. The experimental design used was a split-plot with the main plot being container size and genotypes as the subplot. Nine sweetpotato genotypes were evaluated. Results showed no effect of nutrient solution container size on storage root yield, foliage fresh and dry mass, leaf area or vine length. However, plants grown using the large nutrient solution container accumulated more storage root dry mass than those with the small containers. Although plants grown with the smaller containers showed greater water uptake, plant nutrient uptake was lower than with the larger container. All genotypes evaluated showed variation in their responses to all parameters measured.

Dissolved O2 concentration ([O2]) in nutrient solution was controlled at 0.01, 0.10 and 0.20 mM with accuracy of +/- 0.005 mM in a newly developed hydroponic system, and the effects of [O2] on water uptake and growth of cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus L.) were analyzed. For evaluating water uptake rate under the control of [O2], water flux at the stem base was measured on-line with +/-5% in accuracy, 1 mg s-1 in resolution and 1 min in time constant by heat flux control (HFC) method. Water uptake rate was drastically increased by lighting to the plant at each [O2], and water uptake per day was depressed in proportion to decrease in [O2]. In the plants grown for 10 days, leaf area, fresh weight and dry weight of leaves decreased at lower [O2], while stem length and number of leaves were scarcely affected. These facts suggest that membrane permeability of root cells reduces at lower [O2] through respiration-dependent processes, and growth is inhibited through leaf turgor loss caused by the depressed water uptake of roots in O2-deficient nutrient solution in hydroponics.

The heat transfer characteristics of a hydroponic system were experimentally verified after theoretical establishment and the effect of nutrient solution cooling on the plant temperature was investigated. About 96 percent of the total heat flow transferred from culture bed to nutrient solution was the conductive heat through planting board and partitioning materials. The average and maximum temperatures of the leaf lettuce decreased 0.6 and 1.5 degrees C., respectively, with cooling of nutrient solution by 6 degrees C. A numerical model for prediction of cooling load of nutrient solution in a hydroponic greenhouse was developed, and the results from the simulation model showed a good agreement with those from experiments. A mechanical cooling system using the counter flow type with double pipes was developed for cooling the nutrient solution. Also the heat transfer characteristics of the system were analyzed experimentally and theoretically, and compared with the other existing cooling systems of nutrient solution. The cooling capacities of three different systems, which used polyethylene tube in solution tank, stainless tube in solution tank, and the counter flow type with double pipes, were comparatively evaluated.

The optimum management of nutrient solution in soilless culture needs the accurate control of nutrient solution, especially in recycled soilless culture system. To keep the electrical conductivity (EC) of nutrient solution within the adequate range after application of combined fertilizers, theoretically derived EC prediction methods are required. In this study, the experimental EC prediction equation, an extended form of the Robinson and Stroke's theoretical equation only available for a binary electrolyte, was developed for predicting the EC of the nutrient solution containing many kinds of inorganic compounds. And the multilayer perceptron consisting of three layers with the back propagation learning algorithm was developed for EC prediction. It consists of nine variables in the input layer for the concentrations of seven macro elements, Na+ and Cl, and one variable in the output layer for the EC of nutrient solution. The predicted ECs by experimental model as well as neural networks for the nutrient solution were compared to the measured ones and showed good agreements.

The Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System (PTPNDS), a hydrophilic, microporous ceramic tube hydroponic system designed for microgravity, will be tested in a middeck locker of the Space Shuttle. The flight experiment will focus on hardware operation and assess its ability to support seed germination and early seedling growth in microgravity. The water controlling system of the PTPNDS hardware has been successfully tested during the parabolic flight of the KC-135. One challenge to the development of the space flight experiment was to devise a method of holding seeds to the cylindrical porous tube. The seed-holder must provide water and air to the seed, absorb water from the porous tube, withstand sterilization, provide a clear path for shoots and roots to emerge, and be composed of flight qualified materials. In preparation for the flight experiment, a wheat seed-holder has been designed that utilizes a cellulose acetate plug to facilitate imbibition and to hold the wheat seeds in contact with the porous tube in the correct orientation during the vibration of launch and the microgravity environment of orbit. Germination and growth studies with wheat at a range of temperatures showed that optimal moisture was 78% (by weight) in the cellulose acetate seed holders. These and other design considerations are discussed.

The present-day plant growth facilities ("greenhouses") for space should be equipped with monitors and controllers of ambient parameters within the chamber because spacecraft environmental variations can be unfavorable to plants. Moreover, little is known about the effects of spaceflight on the greenhouse and rooting media. Lack of information about spaceflight effects on plants necessitates supplying space greenhouses with automatic, non-invasive monitors of, e.g., gas exchange rate, water and nutrient ion uptake, plant mass, temperature and water content of leaves. However, introduction of an environmental or plant sensor into the monitoring system may be reasonable only if it is justified by quantitative evaluation of the influence of a measured parameter on productivity, efficacy of illumination, or some other index of greenhouse efficiency. The multivariate adaptive optimization in terrestrial phytotrons appears to be one of the best methods to assess environmental impacts on crops. Two modifications of greenhouses with the three-dimensional adaptive optimization of crop photosynthetic characteristics include: (1) irradiation, air temperature and carbon dioxide using a modified simplex algorithm; and (2) using irradiation, air temperature, and humidity with sensitivity algorithms with varying frequency of test exposures that have been experimentally developed. As a result, during some stages of plant ontogensis, the photosynthetic productivity of wheat, tomatoes, and Chinese cabbage in these systems was found to increase by a factor of 2-3.

A more complete understanding of the dynamics of capillary flow through an unsaturated porous medium would be useful for the development of an effective water and nutrient delivery system for the growth of plants in space. An experiment was conducted on the Mir Space Station that used an experimental cuvette called "Capillary Test Bed" to compare fluid migration under terrestrial laboratory conditions by positioning the cuvette such that the hydrostatic force is negated and on Mir under microgravity conditions. Differences in fluid migration in the cuvette were observed with migration being slower in microgravity compared with some ground control experiments.

The Regenerative Life Support Systems (RLSS) Test Bed at NASA's Johnson Space Center is an atmospherically closed, controlled environment facility for human testing of regenerative life support systems using higher plants in conjunction with physicochemical life support systems. The facility supports NASA's Advanced Life Support (ALS) Program. The facility is comprised of two large scale plant growth chambers, each with approximately 11 m2 growing area. The root zone in each chamber is configurable for hydroponic or solid media plant culture systems. One of the two chambers, the Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC), is capable of operating at lower atmospheric pressures to evaluate a range of environments that may be used in a planetary surface habitat; the other chamber, the Ambient Pressure Growth Chamber (APGC) operates at ambient atmospheric pressure. The air lock of the VPGC is currently being outfitted for short duration (1 to 15 day) human habitation at ambient pressures. Testing with and without human subjects will focus on 1) integration of biological and physicochemical air and water revitalization systems; 2) effect of atmospheric pressure on system performance; 3) planetary resource utilization for ALS systems, in which solid substrates (simulated planetary soils or manufactured soils) are used in selected crop growth studies; 4) environmental microbiology and toxicology; 5) monitoring and control strategies; and 6) plant growth systems design. Included are descriptions of the overall design of the test facility, including discussions of the atmospheric conditioning, thermal control, lighting, and nutrient delivery systems.

Microbiological contamination of crops within space-based plant growth research chambers has been postulated as a potentially significant problem. Microbial infestations; fouling of Nutrient Delivery System (NDS) fluid loops; and the formation of biofilms have been suggested as the most obvious and important manifestations of the problem. Strict sanitation and quarantine procedures will reduce, but not eliminate, microbial species introduced into plant growth systems in space habitats. Microorganisms transported into space most likely will occur as surface contaminants on spacecraft components, equipment, the crew, and plant-propagative materials. Illustrations of the potential magnitude of the microbiological contamination issue will be drawn from the literature and from documentation of laboratory and commercial field experience. Engineering strategies for limiting contamination and for the development of countermeasures will be described. Microbiological control technologies and NDS hardware will be discussed. Configurations appropriate for microgravity research facilities, as well as anticipated bio-regenerative life support system implementations, will be explored. An efficiently designed NDS, capable of adequately meeting the environmental needs of crop plants in space, is considered to be critical in both the research and operational domains. Recommended experiments, tests, and technology developments, structured to allow the development of prudent engineering solutions also will be presented.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. 'Norland', vegetative growth and tuber productivity grown in the porous water and nutrient delivery system (PTNDS) developed by the Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics were compared with the vegetative growth and tuber productivity of plants grown in a peat:vermiculite potting mixture (PT/VR). The plants were grown at 12, 16, and 24-h light periods, 18 degrees C constant temperature, 70% relative humidity, and 300 micromol m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux. Canopy height of plants grown in the PT/VR system was taller than that of plants grown in the PTNDS system. Canopy height differences were greatest when the plants were grown under a 24-h photoperiod. Leaf and stem dry masses were similar for plants grown in the two systems under the 12-h photoperiod. Under the 24-h photoperiod, leaf and stem dry masses of plants grown in the PT/VR system were more than 3 times those of plants grown in the PTNDS system. Tuber dry masses were similar for plants grown in the two systems under the 12-h photoperiod. Under the 24 h-photoperiod, tuber dry weights of plants grown in the PT/VR system were more than twice those of plants grown in the PTNDS system. A slightly higher harvest index (ratio of tuber weight to leaf plus stem weight) was noted for the plants grown in the PTNDS than for the plants grown in the PT/VR system. Plants grown in the PTNDS system at the 24-h photoperiod matured earlier than plants grown at this photoperiod in the PT/VR system. Vegetative growth and tuber productivity of plants grown under the 16-h photoperiod generally were intermediate to those noted for plants grown under the 12 and 24-h photoperiods. These results indicate that potato plants grown in a PTNDS system may require less plant growing volume, mature in a shorter time, and likely produce more tubers per unit area compared with plants grown in the PT/VR system. These plant characteristics are a distinct advantage for a plant growing unit of a CELSS.

The Porous Tube Plant Nutrient Delivery System or PTPNDS (U.S. Patent #4,926,585) has been under development for the past six years with the goal of providing a means for culturing plants in microgravity, specifically providing water and nutrients to the roots. Direct applications of the PTPNDS include plant space biology investigations on the Space Shuttle and plant research for life support in Space Station Freedom. In the past, we investigated various configurations, the suitability of different porous materials, and the effects of pressure and pore size on plant growth. Current work is focused on characterizing the physical operation of the system, examining the effects of solution aeration, and developing prototype configurations for the Plant Growth Unit (PGU), the flight system for the Shuttle mid-deck. Future developments will involve testing on KC-135 parabolic flights, the design of flight hardware and testing aboard the Space Shuttle.

Acquisition and analysis of sensory information are foremost for the control and continued operation of any complex system. The sensors and their attributes must be selected by understanding the biological and physical parameters which, first, can describe, and second, when linked to control systems, can modulate, the plant growth system. These parameters are not all understood, or known, and practical sensors may not even exist for their measurement. A systematic analysis of the general plant system would: focus without prejudice on all the descriptive parameters, as well as, their interrelationships within the biophysical system; highlight the significance of each parameter; expose the areas of weakness and strength of current knowledge; expand the knowledge base; provide the platform for the development of operational models for real-time monitoring and control requirements; and support the longer term tactical and strategic planning needs. Components of such a procedure of systematic analysis which is in development for intensive plant production systems within controlled environments will be discussed.

A wide variety of technical and science questions arise when attempting to envision the long-term support of plants, algae and bacteria in space. Currently, spaceflight data remain elusive since there are no U.S. carriers for investigating either the germane technical or scientific issues. The first flight of the Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET) will provide a nominal 30 day orbital opportunity to evaluate such issues. The P-MASS is a small payload that is designed to meet the mass (40 lbs.), volume (1.5 cu.ft.), and power (120 W) constraints of one of several COMET payloads while enabling flight evaluations of plants, algae and bacteria. Various P-MASS subsystems have been subjected to extensive ground tests as well as KCl35 tests. Various biological sub-systems have been similarly evaluated. Through a variety of sensors coupled with color video, the P-MASS performance and the supported biological systems will be compared for terrestrial controls versus spaceflight materials. This small, low cost payload should return valuable information regarding the requirements for hardware and biological systems needed to move toward bioregenerative life support systems in space. In addition, it should be possible to accurately identify major unresolved difficulties that may arise in the long-term, spaceflight support of various biological systems. Finally, this generic spaceflight capability should enable a variety of plant research programs focused on the use of microgravity to modulate and exploit plant products for commercial applications ranging from new agricultural products to pharmacological feedstocks and new controlled agricultural strategies.

Comprehensive spectroscopic monitoring of plant health and growth in bioregenerative life support system environments is possible using a variety of spectrometric technologies. Absorption spectrometry and atomic emission spectrometry in combination allow for direct, on-line, reagentless monitoring of plant nutrients from nitrate and potassium to micronutrients such as copper and zinc. Fluorometric spectrometry is ideal for the on-line detection, identification and quantification of bacteria and fungi. Liquid Atomic Emission Spectrometry (LAES) is a new form of spectrometry that allows for direct measurement of atomic emission spectra in liquids. An electric arc is generated by a pair of electrodes in the liquid to provide the energy necessary to break molecular bonds and reduce the substance to atomic form. With a fiber probe attached to the electrodes, spectral light can be transmitted to a photodiode array spectrometer for light dispersion and analysis. Ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrometry is a long-established technology, but applications typically have required specific reagents to produce an analyte-specific absorption. Nitrate and iron nutrients have native UV absorption spectra that have been used to accurately determine nutrient concentrations at the +/- 5% level. Fluorescence detection and characterization of microbes is based upon the native fluorescent signatures of most microbiological species. Spectral and time-resolved fluorometers operating with remote fiber-optic probes will be used for on-line microbial monitoring in plant nutrient streams.