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Tongkat Ali is a well-known plant for its’ various bioactivities for human health. However, Tongkat Ali processing suffer from low yields and time consumption. Therefore, this study had been done to investigate the water soluble extracts (WSE) and water soluble proteins (WSP) in water extracts of Eurycoma apiculata that were obtained by microwave assisted extraction (MAE) to accomplish increases in the yields with high efficiency and less time consumption. The study was based on a circumscribed composite central design (CCCD) based on four factors, namely the radius of particle size (P), temperature (T), microwave power (W) and irradiation time (i). The CCCD was successful in identifying the optimal condition for E. apiculata extraction by MAE. Results illustrated that the optimum conditions for obtaining the maximum WSE yield (6.932 ± 1.002%) were (P: 0.0254 mm, T: 61 °C, W: 430 W and i: 19 min) while for the maximum yield of WSPs (15.853 ± 0.697%) were (P: 0.0254 mm, T: 46 °C, W: 270 W and i: 19 min). Kinetic investigations were based on the comparison the second order extraction rate, Peleg and the two site kinetic model for the WSPs. Results revealed that the best empirical models to represent the kinetic characteristics of extraction process were the second order extraction rate and Peleg models with an R2 = 0.9714. The capability of the two site kinetic model represent the extraction was enhanced by the insertion of the degradation factor (kD) which was illustrated by the increase of R2 from 0.9296 to 0.9997. The study concluded that the MAE process is a more efficient extraction process than the one-step conventional extraction method, therefore it was nominated for the upscaling of extracting proteins from E. apiculata roots in pilot and industrial scales.

The traditional ways of protein extraction is disadvantageous from both economic and environment perspective. In this study, ultrasonic assisted extraction, UAE technique was used for the first time for the optimization process of extracting proteins from Eurycoma longifolia roots. The experiments demonstrated the successful effect of applying eccentric agitation with UAE to provide a combination of agitation and sonication to extract the proteins in short extraction times. Central composite design (CCD) was used to optimize the Ultrasonic-assisted extraction of proteins from roots of Eurycoma longifolia by water. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to investigate the effects of five independent variables; particle sizes ( A ), extraction temperatures ( B ), agitation speeds ( C ), amplitude ( D ) and duty cycle ( E ). The second enhanced model ( Y 2 ) prevailed to be more efficient in protein recovery with optimum conditions of A : 0.022 ± 0.022 mm, B : 49 °C, C : 1314 rpm, D : 9 W and E : 63% UI : 2.94 W·cm −2 was 9.543 ± 0. 946%. High agitation speed didn’t only affect the solvent properties, the diffusion of the solutes from the particles, cooling the extraction temperature, but influenced the distribution of cavitation bubbles and their impact on the solid particles. UAE was found to minimize the extraction of the same amount by conventional extraction 7-fold times. The results obtained in this study have exposed the capability of ultrasonic assisted extraction, UAE technology in extraction of protein from E. longifolia roots. Further works are nevertheless required to provide deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved to facilitate the development of optimum system applicable to the industry.

The aim of this research study was to develop hydrogels samples for using in potential biomedical applications. Hydrogels consisting of different volumes of keratin, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and starch. The keratin is derived from the chicken was the primary material on the hydrogels due to attractively for the potential wound healing application. The hydrogel samples were made by using the freeze‑thawing method, and they were examined using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), porosity amusement, swelling ratio and keratin release kinetic models that analyzed using (zero-order, first-order Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models). These results were indicated that feather keratin could use with formulated hydrogels suitably for controlled keratin release studies .

Central composite designs (CCDs) for UAE and WE were established by seven and five extraction factors, respectively, to determine their optimum conditions that maximized the saponins yields. These optimum conditions were employed successively to establish a sequential extraction (SE) of saponins from Eurycoma longifolia roots. Results identified the agitation speed as an influencing factor in altering the interactive effects of the extraction factors in UAE and WE. Optimized conditions illustrated that higher agitation speeds increased the yields of saponins in WE while UAE preferred lower agitation speed ranges. This implied that the high agitation speeds decreased the collision of microjets and particles and hence the the decrease of sonication efficiency. The SE extraction was proposed by initial sonication of the plant sample for a duration of 5 minutes and 29 seconds to 10 minutes followed by conventional WE for 20-25 minutes.