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Η παρούσα μελέτη επιχειρεί να εξετάσει βασικές νομικές προκλήσεις που σχετίζονται με τη χρήση συστημάτων τεχνητής νοημοσύνης κατά τη διάρκεια ένοπλων συγκρούσεων, καταρχήν υπό το πρίσμα του Διεθνούς Ανθρωπιστικού Δικαίου (ΔΑΔ). Εφόσον αρχικά εκτεθούν οι ερευνητικοί στόχοι, προσεγγίζεται η έννοια των Αυτόνομων Οπλικών Συστημάτων μέσω α. ανεπίσημων ορισμών που έχει μέχρι σήμερα επιχειρηθεί να δοθούν, β. βασικών κατηγοριοποιήσεών τους και γ. της περιγραφής των τεχνικών τους χαρακτηριστικών ενώ δ. γίνεται και μία σύντομη αναφορά στις τελευταίες τεχνολογικές εξελίξεις του κλάδου. Εν συνεχεία εκτίθεται το σχετικό νομοθετικό πλαίσιο, τόσο σε διεθνές όσο και σε ευρωπαϊκό επίπεδο, υπογραμμίζοντας την πρόοδο που έχει σημειωθεί αλλά και το γεγονός ότι οφείλουν να γίνουν σημαντικά ακόμη βήματα –νομοθετικά και θεσμικά. Στην επόμενη ενότητα, προσεγγίζεται το κρίσιμο ζήτημα της απόδοσης ευθύνης μέσω διαφορετικών οδών και κλάδων του δικαίου. Με το διεθνές δίκαιο και ειδικότερα το Διεθνές Ανθρωπιστικό Δίκαιο να παραμένουν ως ο κύριος άξονας ανάπτυξης για τη διερεύνηση ζητημάτων α. ατομικής ποινικής και β. κρατικής ευθύνης, γίνεται αναφορά εν συντομία και σε έτερα είδη ευθυνών για τη μη σύννομη χρήση των ΑΟΣ που πηγάζουν από τις εθνικές έννομες τάξεις (αστικό, εμπορικό δίκαιο κα). Έπειτα παρουσιάζονται θεμελιώδη ζητήματα του ΔΑΔ δυνάμενα να εξετασθούν υπό ένα νέο πρίσμα, δηλαδή υπό το φως των ΑΟΣ, όπως η έννοια της επίθεσης, οι τέσσερις θεμελιώδεις αρχές της αναγκαιότητας, της αναλογικότητας, του ανθρωπισμού και τη διάκρισης, νέες αναπτυσσόμενες αρχές οι οποίες σχετίζονται με την υπεύθυνη χρήση της τεχνητής νοημοσύνης (responsible artificial intelligence) και, τέλος, η αυστηρή παράμετρος της αναγκαιότητας συμπόρευσης και με το Διεθνές Δίκαιο των Ανθρωπίνων Δικαιωμάτων. Στην ενότητα που ακολουθεί, γίνεται αναφορά στο είδος του νομοθετικού εργαλείου που χρειάζεται για την ασφαλή πλαισίωση των ΑΟΣ και τα ειδικότερα στοιχεία που αυτό οφείλει να εμπεριέχει και να διασαφηνίζει υπό το δίπολο αυτονομία – ανθρώπινος έλεγχος. Τέλος, ο Επίλογος ανακεφαλαιώνει τις θετικές και αρνητικές παραμέτρους της στρατιωτικής χρήσης των ΑΟΣ και επαναλαμβάνει το γεγονός ότι οι δυνατότητες του ΔΑΔ δεν δύνανται να ρυθμίσουν επαρκώς το ζήτημα αυτό -κάτι που οδηγεί στις προσπάθειες θέσπισης μίας νέας διεθνούς συμβάσεως με πολύ συγκεκριμένα χαρακτηριστικά ικανά να καλύψουν τις ιδιαίτερες πτυχές του ζητήματος, This study attempts to examine the key legal challenges related to the use of artificial intelligence systems during armed conflicts, primarily through the lens of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). After the research objectives are initially presented, the concept of Autonomous Weapon Systems is approached through a. informal definitions, b. basic categorizations and c. the description of technical characteristics. Furthermore, a brief reference is also made to the latest technological developments in the field. In the next Unit, the relevant legislative framework is presented, both at international and European level, underlining the progress that has been made but also the fact that important steps still need to be taken -both legislatively and institutionally. In the following Unit, the critical issue of attribution of liability is approached through different fields of law. With international law and in particular International Humanitarian Law remaining as the main axis of development for the analysis of a. individual criminal and b. state responsibility, a brief reference is also made to other types of responsibility for the illegal use of AWS that stem from national legal orders (civil, commercial law, etc.). In the next Unit, fundamental issues of IHL that can be examined under the light of AWS are presented, such as the concept of attack, the four fundamental principles of necessity, proportionality, humanity and discrimination, new developing principles which are related to the responsible use of artificial intelligence (responsible artificial intelligence) and, finally, the strict parameter of the necessity to comply with International Human Rights Law. In the Section that follows, reference is made to the type of legislative tool needed for the safe framing of AWS and the specific elements that it must include and clarify under the dichotomy of autonomy - human control. Finally, the Epilogue refers to the positive and negative parameters of the military use of AWS and reiterates the fact that IHL cannot adequately regulate this issue, a fact that leads to efforts in order to establish a new international convention with very specific characteristics able to cover all particular aspects of the issue in question

RESUMO A partir da hipótese de que a inteligência artificial como tal não representaria o fim da supremacia humana, uma vez que, na essência, a IA somente simularia e aumentaria aspectos da inteligência humana em artefatos não biológicos, o presente artigo questiona sobre o risco real a ser enfrentado. Para além do embate entre tecnofóbicos e tecnofílicos, o que se defende, então, é que as possíveis falhas de funcionamento de uma inteligência artificial - decorrentes de sobrecarga de informação, de uma programação equivocada ou de uma aleatoriedade do sistema - poderiam sinalizar os verdadeiros riscos existenciais, sobretudo quando se considera que o cérebro biológico, na esteira do viés da automação, tende a assumir de maneira acrítica aquilo que é posto por sistemas ancorados em inteligência artificial. Além disso, o argumento aqui defendido é que falhas não detectáveis pela provável limitação de controle humano quanto ao aumento de complexidade do funcionamento de sistemas de IA representam o principal risco existencial real. ABSTRACT Based on the hypothesis that artificial intelligence would not represent the end of human supremacy, since, in essence, AI would only simulate and increase aspects of human intelligence in non-biological artifacts, this paper questions the real risk to be faced. Beyond the clash between technophobes and technophiles, what is argued, then, is that the possible malfunctions of an artificial intelligence - resulting from information overload, from a wrong programming or from a randomness of the system - could signal the real existential risks, especially when we consider that the biological brain, in the wake of the automation bias, tends to assume uncritically what is set by systems anchored in artificial intelligence. Moreover, the argument defended here is that failures undetectable by the probable limitation of human control regarding the increased complexity of the functioning of AI systems represent the main real existential risk.

Defence agencies across the globe identify artificial intelligence (AI) as a key technology to maintain an edge over adversaries. As a result, efforts to develop or acquire AI capabilities for defence are growing on a global scale. Unfortunately, they remain unmatched by efforts to define ethical frameworks to guide the use of AI in the defence domain. This article provides one such framework. It identifies five principles—justified and overridable uses, just and transparent systems and processes, human moral responsibility, meaningful human control and reliable AI systems—and related recommendations to foster ethically sound uses of AI for national defence purposes.

INTRODUCTION. This research paper presents the authors view on the essence of the problems of modern international law regulation of lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) and international arms circulation. The authors dwell upon various aspects of new technologies in the field of creating LAWS, outline the prospects for the solution of the current challenges, as well as give a legal assessment of the legality of new types of weapons, methods and means of warfare from the perspective of contemporary international law. The system and mechanisms of international law regulation of the military purpose products circulation are also analyzed in this scientific work.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The subject of this study comprises international treaties, international customs, general principles of international law and national legislation of states. The study also includes the analysis of international acts of different nature, reports and other documents of international organizations, national authorities, scientific and educationalliterature. The methodological basis of this study is a wide range of research methods, namely: formal-legal, formal-logical, comparative-legal and historical-legal. In addition, the researchers apply system, structural and functional methods, as well as methods of analysis and generalization.RESEARCH RESULTS. The result of the study is the conclusion about the perspectives of developing auniversal definition of LAWS, as well as a common approach to understanding their characteristics and parameters of human control, and also about the advantages of LAWS in the course of military operations and solving national security problems of states, primarily in terms of compliance with IHL rules, which all military personnel are required to strictly observe. It is also necessary to take into account the crucial role of the issues of secrecy and national security, while Article 36 of Additional Protocol I does not contain criteria for distinguishing new types of weapons from other types of weapons, for example, from those that have undergone multi-stage modernization. It can be stated that at present there are only separate and insuffi ently effective mechanisms of international law regulation due to their voluntary basis. Therefore, national export control mechanisms are of paramount importance for the process of regulating the circulation of military purpose products, which is an essential element of national sovereignty.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The authors come to the following conclusions: the existing provisions of IHL are fully applicable to LAWS; responsibility for the use of LAWS should be borne by the person who manages the robotic complex or «programs» and gives the order to use LAWS, but the specific forms and methods of human control should remain at the discretion of states; Article 36 of Additional Protocol I provides extremely limited opportunities to prevent the creation of new weapons systems, does not require any reporting and control format; research and development of new types ofweapons are secret, and the acquisition or adoption of obviously or presumably indiscriminate weapons systems are not a violation, but rather a preparation for a violation or an activity of a controversial nature; further improvement of the international law regulation of arms circulation should be developed by creating mandatory universal mechanisms of international law regulation that would prevent the uncontrolled circulation and illegal distribution of weapons, including their sale to terrorists.

The ever-accelerating progress in the area of smart technologies gives rise to new ethical challenges, which humankind will sooner or later have to face. An inevitable component of this progress is the increase in the autonomy of the decision-making processes carried out by machines and systems functioning without direct human control. At least some of these decisions will generate conflicts and moral dilemmas. It is therefore worth the while to reflect today upon the measures that need to be taken in order to endow the autonomous, self-learning and self-replicating entities – products equipped with artificial intelligence and capable of independent operation in a wide variety of external conditions and circumstances – with a unique kind of ethical intelligence. At the core of the problem, which both the designers and the users of entities bestowed with artificial intelligence must eventually face, lies the question of how to attain the optimal balance between the goals, needs and interests of both sides of the human-non-human interaction. It is so, because in the context of the expansion of the autonomy of the machines, the anthropocentric model of ethics does no longer suffice. It is therefore necessary to develop a new, extended and modified, model of ethics: a model which would encompass the whole, thus far non-existent, area of equal relations between the human and the machine, and which would allow one to predict its dynamics. The present article addresses some of the aspects of this claim.

Sister Carrie is one of the greatest works composed by Theodore Dreiser, one of the representatives of naturalists in American literature at the beginning of the 20th century. Among numerous works of Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie enjoys a quite high literary status, and also meets with different comments after its publication. The novel mainly tells the personal experiences of a rural beautiful girl Carrie in the big city Chicago. Driven by natural desires and urban environment, she changes her social status and original values in the end. Naturalism is a scientific and literary approach employed here to depict the characters in the novel where a person's fate is decided or predetermined by impersonal forces of nature and environment beyond human control. The novel is an experiment where the author could discover and analyze the natural forces and survival laws that influence personal behaviors, emotion and fate. This paper introduces the origin, development and characteristics of naturalism in American literature, studies the effect of human weakness on their life, and makes clear the influences of environment on people’s way of thinking and way of life.

This article presents a theoretical framework by which to understand how disasters are reconciled with a state’s existing obligations under international law. This ‘reactive’ model of disaster regulation hinges on two regulatory techniques, ‘disapplication’ and ‘exculpation’, both of which involve a deviation from the ordinary application of a norm owing to the occurrence of a disaster or to measures adopted by a state in relation to it. It proceeds to outline the various doctrines and mechanisms across different subfields of international law, including international human rights law, investment law and trade law, which may operationalize these techniques in disaster situations. Finally, it argues that the applicability of certain disapplication and exculpation mechanisms to disasters relies on an anachronistic view of such disasters as rare and episodic occurrences beyond human control. This puts these mechanisms at odds with the central objectives of international disaster law and their underlying sociological and scientific premises, which emphasize the need for an ‘adaptive’ model of comprehensive and prevention-oriented disaster regulation. Accordingly, this analysis exposes the conceptual limitations of the reactive model for disaster regulation and explains and validates the inclination toward an adaptive model within international disaster law. It also indicates how mechanisms within the reactive model could be recalibrated to better regulate disasters.

In this article, I explore the (im)possibility of human control and question the presupposition that we can be morally adequately or meaningfully in control over AI-supported LAWS. Taking seriously Wiener’s warning that “machines can and do transcend some of the limitations of their designers and that in doing so they may be both effective and dangerous,” I argue that in the LAWS human-machine complex, technological features and the underlying logic of the AI system progressively close the spaces and limit the capacities required for human moral agency.

Equality, inclusivity, and diversity remain pertinent topics in healthcare not only for the benefit of patients but also for the workforce. Schemes have existed for many years, but in spite of the progress being made, it remains necessary to reiterate the importance of these terms and to make a conscious effort to enforce them. This paper describes prejudices and stereotypes as a function of the Bayesian brain, beyond human control, and suggests that a higher function is needed to recognise and over-ride these innate thought processes.

Sea coast - a geomorphic system that maintains its stability through the exchange of sand between its individual elements. As environmental conditions change, the shore system changes by adapting to maintain its stability. Natural processes such as sea level fluctuation and extreme storms cause continuous shoreline change. Feedback effects create natural elements inhibiting external factors altering shore stability. There is a relative equilibrium between natural factors and the shore and in the absence of sudden changes the shore system retains its quasi-stability over a long period of time. This is reflected in the development of the Baltic Sea coast at Lithuania in the 20th century. During this period, of naturally developing coastline did not experience drastic changes. Both the position of the shoreline and the change in the volume of sand on shore did not undergo catastrophic changes. Everything changes radically when a human intervenes in natural processes by starting to develop economic activities on the shore. Especially significant changes occur during the construction or reconstruction of hydro-technical structures. In the case of Lithuania, the hydro-technical structures that caused the biggest changes were the jetties of Klaipeda and Šventoji ports and the pier of Palanga. Since the shore sand transfer resultant at the Lithuanian nearshore is directed from south to north, the resulting barrier cats this drift, disrupting the free circulation of sand along the shore and forcing sand to accumulate on the southern side of the jetty. Meanwhile, on the north side of the jetty, when the sand supply is lost, the coast begins to retreat. These changes are exacerbated by the deepening of the Klaipeda port cana

From the Wright Flyer to fly-by-wire, the phenomenon of pilot-induced oscillations (PIO) has persisted, evolving with the complexity of the airframes and their associated flight control systems. Though airframe designers have long recognized the threat posed by PIO, each generation has been forced to address the issue whether identified in developmental flight test, operational flight test, or mission operations. A desired outcome of the research presented in this thesis is that these occurrences may be minimized in the second century of powered flight through enhanced comprehension and mitigation methods. To begin, it is recognized that the most significant threat of PIO in fly-by-wire aircraft comes from pilot interactions with a nonlinear flight control system response characterized by control surface actuator rate limiting, the so-called Category II PIO, and as such is the focus of this thesis. As this work was carried out over three decades, the thesis is separated into three distinct parts that address Comprehension and Analysis Methods, Category II PIO Mitigation Methods, and PIO Detection…

La judicialización de animales bajo control humano ha producido la confluencia de distintos discursos que proponen sentidos para la relación humano-animal. El caso de la orangutana Sandra nos permite estudiar el diálogo / confrontación de dos de estos discursos, el de las ciencias biológicas y el judicial, para identificar sus desavenencias y proponer posibles estrategias de articulación. Tras analizar la articulación entre los saberes y procedimientos de las ciencias biológicas y la práctica judicial, proponemos una forma de articulación que lleva la elaboración de sentido del campo de la disputa al de la coconstrucción., A judicialização de animais sob controle humano tem produzido a confluência de diferentes discursos que propõem sentidos para a relação homem-animal. O caso da orangotango Sandra permite estudar o diálogo / confronto de dois desses discursos, o das ciências biológicas e o judicial, para identificar suas divergências e propor possíveis estratégias de articulação. Após analisar a articulação entre os saberes e procedimentos das ciências biológicas e a prática jurídica, propomos uma forma de articulação que conduza a elaboração de sentidos do campo da disputa ao da coconstrução., The judicialization of animals under human control has produced the confluence of different discourses that propose meanings for the human-animal relationship. The case of the orangutan Sandra allows us to study the dialogue / confrontation of two of these discourses, that of the biological sciences and the judicial one, to identify their disagreements and propose possible strategies of articulation. After analyzing the articulation between the knowledge and procedures of the biological sciences and judicial practice, we propose a form of articulation that leads to the elaboration of meaning from the field of dispute to that of co-construction., Dossier: Interacciones humano-animal., Facultad de Psicología

Atsižvelgiant į sparčią technologinę plėtrą, galima tikėtis, kad greitai artėja pirmųjų visiškai autonominių ginklų sistemų panaudojimas. Nagrinėjama tema yra aktuali, nes autonominės sistemos iš esmės pakeis karų ir karinių konfliktų esmę. Autonominės ginklų sistemos, galinčios pasirinkti ir atakuoti taikinius be tiesioginio žmogaus dalyvavimo, lems reikšmingą karių atitraukimą iš mūšio lauko. Naudojant šias naujas kariavimo priemones ir metodus, daugelį svarbių tikslinių sprendimų greičiausiai reikės priimti anksčiau ir tiesiogiai nematant situacijos mūšio lauke. Visgi tokios ginklų sistemos kelia klausimą, kaip jos, nedalyvaujant žmogui, galėtų atrinkti taikinius ir mirtinai kauti, užtikrindamos atskiriamumo ir proporcingumo principų laikymąsi. Šio darbo tyrimo objektas – Autonominių ginklų sistemų galimybės vykdyti NATO taikinių atrankos procesą, užtikrinant tarptautinės humanitarinės teisės principų laikymąsi. Tyrimo probleminiam klausimui spręsti numatytas darbo tikslas – išanalizuoti autonominių ginklų sistemų naudojimą, užtikrinant tarptautinės humanitarinės teisės proporcingumo ir atskiriamumo principų laikymąsi NATO taikinių atrankos procese. Tyrimui atlikti buvo iškelti keturi uždaviniai: išanalizuoti autonominių ginklų sistemų sampratą ir žmogaus valdymo ir kontrolės aspektus, naudojant tokio tipo ginklus, išnagrinėti tarptautinės humanitarinės teisės principų taikymą autonominių ginklų atžvilgiu, o vėliau ištirti ir nustatyti autonominių ginklų sistemų galimybes vykdyti NATO taikinių atrankos procesą be žmogaus įsikišimo. Baigiamojo darbo struktūrą sudaro: įvadas, teorinė dalis, metodologijos aprašymas, empirinė dalis ir išvados su rekomendacijomis. Šiam tyrimui atlikti buvo pasirinkta indukcinė kokybinės turinio analizės strategija. Duomenims rinkti buvo naudojama mokslinės literatūros ir dokumentų analizė ir atliktas struktūruotas atvirų klausimų nuotolinis interviu raštu. Duomenų analizei atlikti pasirinktas kokybinės turinio analizės metodas. Atlikus visus šiame darbe iškeltus uždavinius, galima daryti išvadą, jog autonominėms ginklų sistemoms negali būti visiškai patikėtas NATO taikinių atrankos proceso vykdymas. Šiuolaikinės dirbtiniu intelektu grindžiamos technologijos negali užtikrinti tinkamo tarptautinės humanitarinės teisės proporcingumo ir atskiriamumo principų laikymosi, naudojant autonomines ginklų sistemas. Tai lemia atsitiktinės žalos grėsmės atsiradimą. Dėl šios priežasties, žmogaus kontrolė ir apribojimų taikymas turi būti išlaikyti ir vykdomi naudojant autonomines ginklų sistemas., Due to the fast technological development, it can be expected that the fully autonomous weapon systems will be in use in very close future. The topic is relevant because autonomous systems will fundamentally change the essence of wars and military conflicts. Solders will be moved from the battlefield because of autonomous weapon systems capability to select and engage targets without direct human involvement. With the introduction of these new means and methods of warfare, many important targeted decisions will most likely need to be made earlier and without directly seeing the situation on the battlefield. However, such weapon systems raise the question of how they could perform target selection and use lethal force, ensuring compliance with the principles of distinction and proportionality without human participation. The object of this research – is the ability of autonomous weapons systems to carry out the targeting process, ensuring the compliance with principles of international humanitarian law. The aim of this research is to analyze the use of autonomous weapon systems compliance with the principles of proportionality and distinction of international humanitarian law in the NATO targeting process. The research carried out four main tasks in order to define the concept of autonomous weapon systems and aspects of human control using weapons of this type, to analyze the application of the principles of international humanitarian law in relation to autonomous weapons, and then to evaluate and determine abilities of autonomous weapon systems to conduct NATO targeting process without human control. The structure of the thesis consists of: introduction, theoretical part, research methodology, empirical part and conclusions with recommendations. This thesis is built based on inductive research approach and qualitative content analysis method. The analysis of scientific literature and documents and a semi-structured open questions interview was chosen for data collection. The method of qualitative content analysis was conducted for the analysis of the data. Having completed all the tasks set out in this master thesis, the master thesis concludes that NATO targeting process execution cannot be fully delegated to autonomous weapon systems. Modern AI-enabled technologies cannot ensure autonomous weapon systems proper compliance with principles of proportionality and distinction of international humanitarian law. This leads to the emergence of collateral damage threat. For this reason, human control and application of restrictions over autonomous weapon systems must be maintained.