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Fire toxicity is the largest cause of death and injury from unwanted fires, yet it is the least-well-studied area of fire science and engineering. Fire toxicity increases by factors up to 50 as the fire becomes under-ventilated. Replicating under-ventilated flaming in a controlled way on a bench-scale requires apparatus designed for the purpose. For acute toxicants, clear correlations have been observed between the stoichiometric equivalence ratio and the yields of the major asphyxiants, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen cyanide. In addition, irritant components of fire effluents can incapacitate fire victims, trapping them in a fire. However, the longer-term toxicants present in fire effluents, such as the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and the microscopic particulates which result from their agglomeration are responsible for additional deaths on top of the acute asphyxiants and irritants. Thus long-term and short-term toxicity from fires must be considered.

Since the 1980s, mass market upholstered furniture sold in the United Kingdom has incorporated flame retardant chemicals to meet regulatory flammability requirements. However, UK fire deaths remain comparable with similar European countries which have no such regulations. Quantitative measures of the effect that different chemical flame retardants additives have on the flammability and smoke toxicity of UK regulatory-compliant upholstered furniture remain limited. It has been shown that most fatal fires involve upholstered furniture; most fire deaths result from toxic gas inhalation; gas phase flame retardants increase the toxicity of smoke; and the fall in fire deaths over the last 30 years is the same in countries with and without furniture flammability regulations. Moreover, the presence of certain flame retardants in furniture is a significant obstacle to any meaningful end-of-life processing. The burning behaviour and smoke toxicity of nine upholstered furniture composites using a range of flame retardant technologies were assessed in the cone calorimeter. The total heat release (THR) varied from 46 MJ m−2 to 68 MJ m−2, the time-to-ignition (tti) from 8 s to 105 s, and peak heat release rate (pHRR) from 230 kW m−2 to 430 kW m−2. The composite filled with PET showed the longest tti while the expandable graphite fabric on the FR-foam showed the lowest pHRR. The composite with the Br-FR fabric and the FR-foam had the shortest tti, the greatest smoke, the second highest CO and the highest HCN yield. The composite with the non-FR fabric and the PET filling had the longest tti. For all the fabrics, the transition from non-FR to FR foam resulted in significant increases in the smoke, CO and HCN, except CO of Br-FR and FR-foam was slightly lower than non-FR foam. Smoke toxicity predictions show that the use of gas phase flame retardants in both the fabrics and fillings of upholstered furniture contributes to the high proportion of smoke-related fire casualties. The wor

Introduction: Evidence suggests that standards for resistance of furniture to ignition may lead to an increase in use of chemical flame retardants (CFRs). This is motivating the development of new approaches that maintain high levels of fire safety while facilitating a reduction in use of CFRs. However, reconciling potential fire risk with use of CFRs in relation to specific policy objectives is challenging. Objectives: To inform the development of a new policy in the UK for the fire safety of furniture, we developed for domestic furniture quantitative models of fire risk and potential for CFR exposure. We then combined the models to determine if any lower fire risk, higher CFR exposure categories of furniture were identifiable. Methods: We applied a novel mixed-methods approach to modelling furniture fire risk and CFR exposure in a data-poor environment, using literature-based concept mapping, qualitative research, and data visualisation methods to generate fire risk and CFR exposure models and derive furniture product rankings. Results: Our analysis suggests there exists a cluster of furniture types including baby and infant products and pillows that have comparable overall properties in terms of lower fire risk and higher potential for CFR exposure. Discussion: There are multiple obstacles to reconciling fire risk and CFR use in furniture. In particular, these include a lack of empirical data that would allow absolute fire risk and exposure levels to be quantified. Nonetheless, it seems that our modelling method can potentially yield meaningful product clusters, providing a basis for further research.

Introduction: Evidence suggests that standards for resistance of furniture to ignition may lead to an increase in use of chemical flame retardants (CFRs). This is motivating the development of new approaches that maintain high levels of fire safety while facilitating a reduction in use of CFRs. However, reconciling potential fire risk with use of CFRs in relation to specific policy objectives is challenging. Objectives: To inform the development of a new policy in the UK for the fire safety of furniture, we developed for domestic furniture quantitative models of fire risk and potential for CFR exposure. We then combined the models to determine if any lower fire risk, higher CFR exposure categories of furniture were identifiable. Methods: We applied a novel mixed-methods approach to modelling furniture fire risk and CFR exposure in a data-poor environment, using literature-based concept mapping, qualitative research, and data visualisation methods to generate fire risk and CFR exposure models and derive furniture product rankings. Results: Our analysis suggests there exists a cluster of furniture types including baby and infant products and pillows that have comparable overall properties in terms of lower fire risk and higher potential for CFR exposure. Discussion: There are multiple obstacles to reconciling fire risk and CFR use in furniture. In particular, these include a lack of empirical data that would allow absolute fire risk and exposure levels to be quantified. Nonetheless, it seems that our modelling method can potentially yield meaningful product clusters, providing a basis for further research.

Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) is often the most toxicologically significant component in fire effluents from nitrogen-containing materials. Unlike the other major asphyxiant, carbon monoxide, sensors for continuous HCN quantification, at and above dangerous concentrations, are not commercially available. This paper investigates the analysis of fire effluent captured in bubbler solutions, by colorimetric quantification of HCN using chloramine-T/isonicotinic acid. The bubbler samples were mixed with colorimetric reagents to give a blue dye in response to cyanide ions. A novel reaction scheme accounting for the formation of the blue dye from cyanide ions is presented. Dilute, standard cyanide solutions were found to be stable after storage for up to one year. Alkaline bubbler solutions, through which the fire effluent has passed, showed consistent cyanide concentrations, for samples stored between 5°C and 35°C, for up to 31 days after sampling. The effect of other common ions likely to be present in fire effluent solution samples (CO32-, SO32-, SO42-, NO2- and NO3-) was investigated for their potential interference. The most significant interference was sulphite which reduced the apparent cyanide concentration by 13% at 10 mg L-1 SO32- concentration.