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Liver fibrosis, characterized by scar tissue formation, can ultimately result in liver failure. It's a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally, often associated with chronic liver diseases like hepatitis or alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases. However, current treatment options are limited, highlighting the urgent need for the development of new therapies. As a reversible regulatory mechanism, epigenetic modification is implicated in many biological processes, including liver fibrosis. Exploring the epigenetic mechanisms involved in liver fibrosis could provide valuable insights into developing new treatments for chronic liver diseases, although the current evidence is still controversial. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the regulatory mechanisms and critical targets of epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA modification, in liver fibrotic diseases. The potential cooperation of different epigenetic modifications in promoting fibrogenesis was also highlighted. Finally, available agonists or inhibitors regulating these epigenetic mechanisms and their potential application in preventing liver fibrosis were discussed. In summary, elucidating specific druggable epigenetic targets and developing more selective and specific candidate medicines may represent a promising approach with bright prospects for the treatment of chronic liver diseases.

Abstract Patients with cirrhosis have intestinal barrier dysfunction but the role of the individual cell types in human small intestine is unclear. We performed single-nuclear RNA sequencing (snRNAseq) in the pinch biopsies of terminal ileum of four age-matched men [56 years, healthy control, compensated, early (ascites and lactulose use) and advanced decompensated cirrhosis (ascites and rifaximin use)]. Cell type proportions, differential gene expressions, cell-type specific pathway analysis using IPA, and cellular crosstalk dynamics were compared. Stem cells, enterocytes and Paneth cells were lowest in advanced decompensation. Immune cells like naive CD4 + T cells were lowest while ITGAE + cells were highest in advanced decompensation patients. MECOM had lowest expression in stem cells in advanced decompensation. Defensin and mucin sulfation gene (PAPSS2) which can stabilize the mucus barrier expression were lowest while IL1, IL6 and TNF-related genes were significantly upregulated in the enterocytes, goblet, and Paneth cells in decompensated subjects. IPA analysis showed higher inflammatory pathways in enterocytes, stem, goblet, and Paneth cells in decompensated patients. Cellular crosstalk analysis showed that desmosome, protease-activated receptors, and cadherin-catenin complex interactions were most perturbed in decompensated patients. In summary, the snRNAseq of the human terminal ileum in 4 subjects (1 control and three cirrhosis) identified multidimensional alteration in the intestinal barrier with lower stem cells and altered gene expression focused on inflammation, mucin sulfation and cell–cell interactions with cirrhosis decompensation.

This study addresses an issue arising during requests to intervene, usually focused on the direct shift of control from the system to an unprepared driver. We explore an approach based on the concept of adaptive automation. The approach is utilized to establish a strategy that the automated driving system can modulate between different driving states (Level 0 (L0) to Level 3 (L3) driving automation) based on traffic situations. Furthermore, we aim to design Human-Machine Interface (HMI) instructions that align with two design perspectives: system-centered (Implicit) and human-centered (Explicit). These HMI instructions critical to the strategy implemented are intended to sustain awareness on driver roles and decrease inappropriate driver responses during transitions. In the experiment, we utilized two approaches (adaptive control transition strategy and fixed control transition strategy) and two HMI designs. The experiment with a driving simulator was conducted with 60 drivers. The research questions explored include the influence of HMI design on drivers’ awareness during shifts from L3 to L2/L1. Also, we examine how different combinations of a strategy and HMI design affect reaction times from L3 to L0 scenarios. Compared to Implicit-HMI, the use of Explicit-HMI did not lead to inappropriate actions associated with their driving roles. This indicates that Explicit-HMI facilitates accurate response to state changes during the implementation of the adaptive approach. In terms of the comparison of the combinations, it is found that the adaptive approach provides initial guidance for drivers to monitor the environment, thereby providing earlier reaction time for the transition to manual.

Abstract Background and aims Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic liver disease characterized by progressive biliary inflammation and bile duct injury. Berberine (BBR) is a bioactive isoquinoline alkaloid found in various herbs and has multiple beneficial effects on metabolic and inflammatory diseases, including liver diseases. This study aimed to examine the therapeutic effect of BBR on cholestatic liver injury in a PSC mouse model (Mdr2−/− mice) and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. Methods Mdr2−/−mice (12–14 weeks old, both sexes) received either BBR (50 mg/kg) or control solution daily for eight weeks via oral gavage. Histological and serum biochemical analyses were used to assess fibrotic liver injury severity. Total RNAseq and pathway analyses were used to identify the potential signaling pathways modulated by BBR in the liver. The expression levels of key genes involved in regulating hepatic fibrosis, bile duct proliferation, inflammation, and bile acid metabolism were validated by qRT-PCR or Western blot analysis. The bile acid composition and levels in the serum, liver, small intestine, and feces and tissue distribution of BBR were measured by LC–MS/MS. Intestinal inflammation and injury were assessed by gene expression profiling and histological analysis. The impact on the gut microbiome was assessed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results BBR treatment significantly ameliorated cholestatic liver injury, evidenced by decreased serum levels of AST, ALT, and ALP, and reduced bile duct proliferation and hepatic fibrosis, as shown by H&E, Picro-Sirius Red, and CK19 IHC staining. RNAseq and qRT-PCR analyses indicated a substantial inhibition of fibrotic and inflammatory gene expression. BBR also mitigated ER stress by downregulating Chop, Atf4 and Xbp-1 expression. In addition, BBR modulated bile acid metabolism by altering key gene expressions in the liver and small intestine, resulting in restored bile acid homeostasis characterized by reduced total bile acids in serum, liver, and small intestine and increased fecal excretion. Furthermore, BBR significantly improved intestinal barrier function and reduced bacterial translocation by modulating the gut microbiota. Conclusion BBR effectively attenuates cholestatic liver injury, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent for PSC and other cholestatic liver diseases.

The vase life of cut lilies is short. Improving the vase life is very important to keep this kind of cut flower fresh by using exogenous improvers. The aim of this study was to elucidate the effectiveness of polyglutamic acid (PGA) on the vase life of cut lilies, in order to introduce a new vase life improver for cut lilies. The results demonstrated that PGA significantly strengthened the antioxidant capacity by enhancing the antioxidant activities (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase) and the antioxidant contents (total phenolics, total flavonoids, total anthocyanin and vitamin C), which further decreased the electrolyte leakage and the malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide contents. Meanwhile, the PGA significantly maintained the water balance by decreasing the water saturation deficit and increasing the relative water content and the soluble sugar and proline contents, as well as the average fresh weight change rate and average water balance value of the cut flower. Besides, the PGA significantly decreased the wilted flower numbers and increased the open flower numbers, flower diameter and the vase life of lily cut flower. The above findings provided useful information for the potential application of PGA as a new vase life improver for cut lilies.

Seven different substrates were prepared by mixing red soil, humus and river sand in different volume ratios and the growth and yield of Amorphophallus muelleri bulbils in different substrates was investigated. The growth of A. muelleri seedlings were tracked during the reproductive period, with measurements taken of indicators such as petiole length, petiole basal diameter and leaf size during the late period of leaf expansion. Number of surviving plants, weights and sizes of corms, and leaf bulbils were recorded after lodging. The results showed that there were differences in the physical and chemical properties of the seven substrates, but all met the growth requirements of A. muelleri. T1 (river sand), T2 (river sand: humus 1:1), T3 (humus), and T7 (river sand: humus: red soil 1:1:1) had higher emergence rates, reaching 95 %. T4 (humus: red soil 1:1) and T7 had better growth, with larger petiole and leaf sizes than other substrates. T3, T4, and T7 had higher yields, with a bulbil yield of 0.30 t hm−2 and a corm yield of 22.06 t hm−2. Compared to the use of a single substrate, whether river sand, humus, or red soil, the proportional mixture of the three test materials improved the physical structure and chemical composition of the substrate, contributing to the growth of A. muelleri. T7 (river sand: humus: red soil 1:1:1) was was found to be the best nursery substrate for A. muelleri.

Abstract Chronic cholestatic liver diseases, such as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), are associated with bile stasis and gradually progress to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver failure, which requires liver transplantation. Although ursodeoxycholic acid is effective in slowing the disease progression of PBC, it has limited efficacy in PSC patients. It is challenging to develop effective therapeutic agents due to the limited understanding of disease pathogenesis. During the last decade, numerous studies have demonstrated that disruption of bile acid (BA) metabolism and intrahepatic circulation promotes the progression of cholestatic liver diseases. BAs not only play an essential role in nutrition absorption as detergents but also play an important role in regulating hepatic metabolism and modulating immune responses as key signaling molecules. Several excellent papers have recently reviewed the role of BAs in metabolic liver diseases. This review focuses on BA-mediated signaling in cholestatic liver disease.

Gut microbiota composition is altered in patients with alcohol use disorder, and fecal microbiota transplant reduced alcohol craving in patients with alcohol use disorder and liver cirrhosis in a phase 1 clinical trial. Here the authors used stool samples collected in the trial to report that this phenotype is transmissible via microbial transfer to germ free mice, as assessed by reduced ethanol acceptance, intake and preference.

Abstract Background NAFLD has become the most common chronic liver disease worldwide. Human antigen R (HuR), an RNA-binding protein, is an important post-transcriptional regulator. HuR has been reported as a key player in regulating lipid homeostasis in the liver and adipose tissues by using tissue-specific HuR knockout mice. However, the underlying mechanism by which hepatocyte-specific HuR regulates hepatic lipid metabolism under metabolic stress remains unclear and is the focus of this study. Methods Hepatocyte-specific HuR deficient mice (HuRhKO) and age-/gender-matched control mice, as well as long-noncoding RNA H19 knockout mice (H19−/−), were fed a Western Diet plus sugar water (WDSW). Hepatic lipid accumulation, inflammation and fibrosis were examined by histology, RNA transcriptome analysis, qRT–PCR, and Western blot analysis. Bile acid composition was measured using LC–MS/MS. Results Hepatocyte-specific deletion of HuR not only significantly increased hepatic lipid accumulation by modulating fatty acid synthesis and metabolism but also markedly induced inflammation by increasing immune cell infiltration and neutrophil activation under metabolic stress. In addition, hepatic deficiency of HuR disrupted bile acid homeostasis and enhanced liver fibrosis. Mechanistically, HuR is a repressor of H19 expression. Analysis of a recently published dataset (GSE143358) identified H19 as the top-upregulated gene in liver-specific HuR knockout mice. Similarly, hepatocyte-specific deficiency of HuR dramatically induced the expression of H19 and sphingosine-1 phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), but reduced the expression of sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2). WDSW-induced hepatic lipid accumulation was alleviated in H19−/− mice. Furthermore, the downregulation of H19 alleviated WDSW-induced NAFLD in HuRhKO mice. Conclusions HuR not only functions as an RNA binding protein to modulate post-transcriptional gene expression but also regulates H19 promoter activity. Hepatic HuR is an important regulator of hepatic lipid metabolism via modulating H19 expression.

In Japan, the guidelines of safety technology for automated vehicles clearly state the requirement of level-3 equipment with minimal risk maneuver (MRM) in automated vehicles. In case the drivers fail to respond to a request for intervention, the conditional driving automation system activates an MRM to control the vehicle to a halt in the driving lane or on the side of the road. The current study aims to explore the research question: how does the information of the MRM functionality equipped within the automated vehicle affect the driver behavior during conditionally automated driving? In this study, we hypothesized that drivers who are provided with information about MRM functionality may reduce their attention toward the surrounding environment. The attention allocation to the surrounding environment may be related to the quality of take-over performance. Therefore, we attempted to observe the drivers’ takeover performance in response to RtI. Accordingly, a driving simulator experiment was conducted with 28 drivers as participants to investigate the influence of information regarding MRM on driver behavior. Two groups were formed by randomly placing the participants with and without providing MRM information. The results revealed that the information on MRM triggered a behavioral change in the drivers and reduced their attention toward the surrounding environment or allocated more attention toward the surrounding environment. In future, we would examine the method and content of communicating the MRM information to drivers using automated driving systems.

CYP7B1 catalyzes mitochondria-derived cholesterol metabolites such as (25R)26-hydroxycholesterol (26HC) and 3β-hydroxy-5-cholesten-(25R)26-oic acid (3βHCA) and facilitates their conversion to bile acids. Disruption of 26HC/3βHCA metabolism in the absence of CYP7B1 leads to neonatal liver failure. Disrupted 26HC/3βHCA metabolism with reduced hepatic CYP7B1 expression is also found in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). The current study aimed to understand the regulatory mechanism of mitochondrial cholesterol metabolites and their contribution to onset of NASH. We used Cyp7b1−/− mice fed a normal diet (ND), Western diet (WD), or high-cholesterol diet (HCD). Serum and liver cholesterol metabolites as well as hepatic gene expressions were comprehensively analyzed. Interestingly, 26HC/3βHCA levels were maintained at basal levels in ND-fed Cyp7b1−/− mice livers by the reduced cholesterol transport to mitochondria, and the upregulated glucuronidation and sulfation. However, WD-fed Cyp7b1−/− mice developed insulin resistance (IR) with subsequent 26HC/3βHCA accumulation due to overwhelmed glucuronidation/sulfation with facilitated mitochondrial cholesterol transport. Meanwhile, Cyp7b1−/− mice fed an HCD did not develop IR or subsequent evidence of liver toxicity. HCD-fed mice livers revealed marked cholesterol accumulation but no 26HC/3βHCA accumulation. The results suggest 26HC/3βHCA-induced cytotoxicity occurs when increased cholesterol transport into mitochondria is coupled to decreased 26HC/3βHCA metabolism driven with IR. Supportive evidence for cholesterol metabolite-driven hepatotoxicity is provided in a diet-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver mouse model and by human specimen analyses. This study uncovers an insulin-mediated regulatory pathway that drives the formation and accumulation of toxic cholesterol metabolites within the hepatocyte mitochondria, mechanistically connecting IR to cholesterol metabolite-induced hepatocyte toxicity which drives nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Abstract. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the fastest-growing diseases, and its global prevalence is estimated to increase >50% by 2030. NAFLD is comorbid with metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and insulin resistance. Despite extensive research efforts, there are no pharmacologic or biological therapeutics for the treatment of NAFLD. Bile acids and sphingolipids are well-characterized signaling molecules. Over the last few decades, researchers have uncovered potential mechanisms by which bile acids and sphingolipids regulate hepatic lipid metabolism. Dysregulation of bile acid and sphingolipid metabolism has been linked to steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis in patients with NAFLD. This clinical observation has been recapitulated in animal models, which are well-accepted by experts in the hepatology field. Recent transcriptomic and lipidomic studies also show that sphingolipids are important players in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Moreover, the identification of bile acids as activators of sphingolipid-mediated signaling pathways established a novel theory for bile acid and sphingolipid biology. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the understanding of bile acid and sphingolipid-mediated signaling pathways as potential contributors to NAFLD. A better understanding of the pathologic effects mediated by bile acids and sphingolipids will facilitate the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for NAFLD.

Foundation settlement often leads to large deformation of the tank wall, which seriously affects the safe operation of the tank. In order to study the deformation response state of crude oil storage tanks under harmonic settlement, a numerical simulation model of large crude oil storage tanks under harmonic settlement was established with the finite element analysis software ABAQUS. The model, considering the effect of the foundation comprehensively, is capable of accurately simulating the true service state of the storage tanks. In addition, the influence law of wall diameter-thickness ratio, height-diameter ratio, harmonic number, harmonic amplitude and liquid level of the tanks on the radial deformation of the tank wall was studied quantitatively based on the established numerical simulation model. The results indicate that, the wall diameter-thickness ratio and the liquid level of the tanks have little effect on the radial deformation on top of the tank wall, which can be ignored from the perspective of engineering. Besides, the radial deformation on top of the tank wall increases approximately linearly with the increase of the height-diameter ratio of the tank wall and the harmonic amplitude. Moreover, the radial deformation of the tank wall increases at first and then decreases as the harmonic number increases.

Abstract The major cause of pulmonary vascular remodeling in broilers is abnormal proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and one of the main causes of pulmonary hypertension syndrome (PHS) in broilers is pulmonary artery vascular remodeling. Forty Arbor Acres (AA) broilers were randomly divided into four groups (n = 10): a control group (deionized water, 0 g/L NaCl), a freshwater group (FW, deionized water + 1 g/L NaCl), highly salinized freshwater group 1 (H-SFW-1, deionized water + 2.5 g/L NaCl) and highly salinized freshwater group 2 (H-SFW-2, deionized water + 5 g/L NaCl). The results of in vivo experiments showed that vascular smooth muscle of the broilers could be significantly proliferated by intake of high-salinity fresh water (H-SFW-1 & H-SFW-2), which significantly increased the content of angiotensin II (Ang II) and the expression of angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptor protein. Meanwhile, it significantly decreased the expression of dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) protein. The results of in vitro experiments showed that exogenous Ang II induced the proliferation of primary VSMCs in broilers, which could be significantly inhibited by DRD4 agonists (D4A, HY-101384A) and enhanced by DRD4 inhibitors (D4I, HY-B0965). In addition, the results of immunoblotting and fluorescence quantitative PCR showed that AT1 receptors could be negatively regulated by DRD4 in VSMCs of broilers, either at the transcriptional or translational level. At the same time, the expression of AT1 receptor could be increased by DRD4 inhibition by D4I and decreased by DRD4 activation by D4A. The negative regulatory effect of DRD4 on AT1 receptor occurred in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicate that long-term intake of highly salinized fresh water can cause PHS in broilers, accompanied by varying degrees of proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle. This mechanism may involve response of its receptor being induced by increased Ang II, while DRD4 can negatively regulate it.

Abstract Although macrophages are recognized as important players in the pathogenesis of chronic liver diseases, their roles in cholestatic liver fibrosis remain incompletely understood. We previously reported that long noncoding RNA-H19 (lncRNA-H19) contributes to cholangiocyte proliferation and cholestatic liver fibrosis of biliary atresia (BA). We here show that monocyte/macrophage CD11B mRNA levels are increased significantly in livers of BA patients and positively correlated with the progression of liver inflammation and fibrosis. The macrophages increasingly infiltrate and accumulate in the fibrotic niche and peribiliary areas in livers of BA patients. Selective depletion of macrophages using the transgenic CD11b-diphtheria toxin receptor (CD11b-DTR) mice halts bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced progression of liver damage and fibrosis. Meanwhile, macrophage depletion significantly reduces the BDL-induced hepatic lncRNA-H19. Overexpression of H19 in livers using adeno-associated virus serotype 9 (AAV9) counteracts the effects of macrophage depletion on liver fibrosis and cholangiocyte proliferation. Additionally, both H19 knockout (H19−/−) and conditional deletion of H19 in macrophage (H19ΔCD11B) significantly depress the macrophage polarization and recruitment. lncRNA-H19 overexpressed in THP-1 macrophages enhance expression of Rho-GTPase CDC42 and RhoA. In conclusions, selectively depletion of macrophages suppresses cholestatic liver injuries and fibrosis via the lncRNA-H19 and represents a potential therapeutic strategy for rapid liver fibrosis in BA patients.

Biliary fibrosis is the driving pathological process in cholangiopathies such as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Cholangiopathies are also associated with cholestasis, which is the retention of biliary components, including bile acids, in the liver and blood. Cholestasis may worsen with biliary fibrosis. Furthermore, bile acid levels, composition and homeostasis are dysregulated in PBC and PSC. In fact, mounting data from animal models and human cholangiopathies suggest that bile acids play a crucial role in the pathogenesis and progression of biliary fibrosis. The identification of bile acid receptors has advanced our understanding of various signaling pathways involved in regulating cholangiocyte functions and the potential impact on biliary fibrosis. We will also briefly review recent findings linking these receptors with epigenetic regulatory mechanisms. Further detailed understanding of bile acid signaling in the pathogenesis of biliary fibrosis will uncover additional therapeutic avenues for cholangiopathies.

Liver cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death globally, with limited treatment options. Recent studies have demonstrated the critical role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the pathogenesis of liver cancers. Of note, mounting evidence has shown that lncRNA H19, an endogenous noncoding single-stranded RNA, functions as an oncogene in the development and progression of liver cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), the two most prevalent primary liver tumors in adults. H19 can affect many critical biological processes, including the cell proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, and metastasis of liver cancer by its function on epigenetic modification, H19/miR-675 axis, miRNAs sponge, drug resistance, and its regulation of downstream pathways. In this review, we will focus on the most relevant molecular mechanisms of action and regulation of H19 in the development and pathophysiology of HCC and CCA. This review aims to provide valuable perspectives and translational applications of H19 as a potential diagnostic marker and therapeutic target for liver cancer disease.

Conditionally automated driving is expected to become available to the public in near future. However, the driver is expected to take over control from the system when a sudden system failure occurs or when the driving automation system is approaching its operational design domain (ODD) exit. The time budget for drivers to take over control is different: (1) in the sudden system failure situation, the system needs to be deactivated immediately with issuing a request to intervene (RTI); (2) in the ODD exit situation, the system could keep active for a while after the issue of RTI. In this paper, two hypotheses were put forward based on driver’s expected utility analysis: (1) the drivers respond faster to the RTI in the system failure situation; (2) the drivers perform smoother driving behaviour after takeover in the ODD exit situation. We recruited 32 participants to conduct a driving simulator experiment, in which the driver takeover performance in system failure situation was compared with that in the ODD exit condition. Results revealed that drivers responded significantly faster in the system failure situation. There was no significant difference of longitudinal takeover performance between the two types of limitations. However, the drivers generally performed smoother lateral takeover performance in the ODD exit situation, which supported our hypothesis.

NAFLD is an important public health issue closely associated with the pervasive epidemics of diabetes and obesity. Yet, despite NAFLD being among the most common of chronic liver diseases, the biological factors responsible for its transition from benign nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) to NASH remain unclear. This lack of knowledge leads to a decreased ability to find relevant animal models, predict disease progression, or develop clinical treatments. In the current study, we used multiple mouse models of NAFLD, human correlation data, and selective gene overexpression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StarD1) in mice to elucidate a plausible mechanistic pathway for promoting the transition from NAFL to NASH. We show that oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7B1) controls the levels of intracellular regulatory oxysterols generated by the “acidic/alternative” pathway of cholesterol metabolism. Specifically, we report data showing that an inability to upregulate CYP7B1, in the setting of insulin resistance, results in the accumulation of toxic intracellular cholesterol metabolites that promote inflammation and hepatocyte injury. This metabolic pathway, initiated and exacerbated by insulin resistance, offers insight into approaches for the treatment of NAFLD.

Rabies, a fatal disease in humans and other mammals, is caused by the rabies virus (RABV), and it poses a public health threat in many parts of the world. Once symptoms of rabies appear, the mortality is near 100%. There is currently no effective treatment for rabies. In our study, two human-derived RABV-neutralizing antibodies (RVNA), CR57 and CR4098, were cloned into adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, and recombinant AAVs expressing RVNA were evaluated for postexposure prophylaxis after intrathecal injection into RABV-infected rats. At 4days post-infection with a lethal dose of RABV, 60% of the rats that received an intrathecal injection of AAV-CR57 survived, while 100% of the rats inoculated with AAV-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) succumbed to rabies. Overall, these results demonstrate that AAV-encoding RVNA can be utilized as a potential human rabies postexposure prophylaxis.

BackgroundCirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy (HE) are linked with an altered gut-liver-brain axis, however, the relative contribution of hepatic vagal innervation is unclear. We aimed to determine the impact of hepatic vagotomy on the gut microbiome, brain, and liver in murine cirrhosis.Methods10–15-week-old male C57BL/6 mice with and without hepatic vagotomy underwent carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) gavage for 8 weeks. Frontal cortex [inflammation, glial/microglial activation, BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor)], liver [histology including inflammation and steatosis, fatty acid synthesis (sterol-responsive binding protein-1) SREBP-1, insulin-induced gene-2 (Insig2) and BDNF], and colonic mucosal microbiota (16srRNA microbial sequencing) were evaluated on sacrifice. Conventional mice with and without cirrhosis were compared to vagotomized counterparts.ResultsConventional control vs. cirrhosis: Cirrhosis resulted in dysbiosis, hepatic/neuro-inflammation with glial/microglial activation, and low brain BDNF vs. controls. Conventional control vs. vagotomy controls: Vagotomized control mice had a lower colonic dysbiosis than conventional mice but the rest of the hepatic/brain parameters were similar. Conventional cirrhosis vs. vagotomized cirrhosis: After vagotomy + cirrhosis, we found lower dysbiosis but continuing neuroinflammation in the absence of glial/microglial activation vs. conventional cirrhosis. Vagotomy + Cirrhosis groups showed higher hepatic steatosis due to higher SREBP1 and low Insig2 protein and altered activation of key genes involved in hepatic lipid metabolism and inflammation. BDNF levels in the brain were higher but low in the liver in vagotomy + cirrhosis, likely a protective mechanism.ConclusionsHepatic vagal innervation affects the gut microbial composition, hepatic inflammation and steatosis, and cortical inflammation and BDNF expression and could be a critical modulator of the gut-liver-brain axis with consequences for HE development.

The liver is the central organ involved in lipid metabolism and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is responsible for nutrient absorption and partitioning. Obesity, dyslipidemia and metabolic disorders are of increasing public health concern worldwide, and novel therapeutics that target both the liver and the GI tract (gut-liver axis) are much needed. In addition to aiding fat digestion, bile acids act as important signaling molecules that regulate lipid, glucose and energy metabolism via activating nuclear receptor, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), Takeda G protein receptor 5 (TGR5) and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2). Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is synthesized by two sphingosine kinase isoforms and is a potent signaling molecule that plays a critical role in various diseases such as fatty liver, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer. In this review, we will focus on recent findings related to the role of S1P-mediated signaling pathways in the gut-liver axis. Keywords: Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), Sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2), Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2), Gut-liver axis, Liver diseases

Fatty liver disease: A gutsy way to prevent disease progression A treatment for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease that incorporates a metabolite found in the gut could prevent progression to a more serious liver condition. Drugs that enhance the activity of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), a protein involved in regulating metabolic processes, have shown promise in targeting non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and the more serious condition, steatohepatitis. However, some patients appear resistant to treatment. Jian-Gao Fan at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China, Huiping Zhou at McGuire VA Medical Center in Richmond, USA, and co-workers demonstrated that a gut metabolite called sodium butyrate may help encourage responsiveness to GLP-1 treatment. The team found that liver GLP-1R expression was considerably reduced in patients with liver disease compared with healthy controls. Experiments on mouse models showed that treatment incorporating sodium butyrate improved GLP-1R levels and reduced fatty liver deposits.

Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is a spectrum of diseases, the onset and progression of which are due to chronic alcohol use. ALD ranges, by increasing severity, from hepatic steatosis to alcoholic hepatitis (AH) and alcohol-associated cirrhosis (AC), and in some cases, can lead to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). ALD continues to be a significant health burden and is now the main cause of liver transplantations in the United States. ALD leads to biological, microbial, physical, metabolic, and inflammatory changes in patients that vary depending on disease severity. ALD deaths have been increasing in recent years and are projected to continue to increase. Current treatment centers focus on abstinence and symptom management, with little in the way of resolving disease progression. Due to the metabolic disruption and gut dysbiosis in ALD, bile acid (BA) signaling and metabolism are also notably affected and play a prominent role in disease progression in ALD, as well as other liver disease states, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the understanding of the mechanisms by which alcohol consumption induces hepatic injury and the role of BA-mediated signaling in the pathogenesis of ALD.

Inflammation plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Berberine (BBR), an isoquinoline alkaloid isolated from Chinese medicinal herbs, has been widely used to treat various diseases, including liver diseases for hundreds of years. The previous studies have shown that BBR inhibits high fat-diet-induced steatosis and inflammation in rodent models of NAFLD. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study is aimed to identify the potential mechanisms by which BBR inhibits free fatty acid (FFA) and LPS-induced inflammatory response in mouse macrophages and hepatocytes. Mouse RAW264.7 macrophages and primary mouse hepatocytes were treated with palmitic acid (PA) or LPS or both with or without BBR (0-10 μM) for different periods (0-24 h). The mRNA and protein levels of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1) and ER stress genes (CHOP, ATF4, XBP-1) were detected by real-time RT-PCR, Western blot and ELISA, respectively. The results indicated that BBR significantly inhibited PA and LPS-induced activation of ER stress and expression of proinflammatory cytokines in macrophages and hepatocytes. PA/LPS-mediated activation of ERK1/2 was inhibited by BBR in a dose-dependent manner. In summary, BBR inhibits PA/LPS-induced inflammatory responses through modulating ER stress-mediated ERK1/2 activation in macrophages and hepatocytes.

The prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has been significantly increased due to the global epidemic of obesity. The disease progression from simple steatosis (NAFL) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is closely linked to inflammation, insulin resistance, and dysbiosis. Although extensive efforts have been aimed at elucidating the pathological mechanisms of NAFLD disease progression, current understanding remains incomplete, and no effective therapy is available. Bile acids (BAs) are not only important physiological detergents for the absorption of lipid-soluble nutrients in the intestine but also metabolic regulators. During the last two decades, BAs have been identified as important signaling molecules involved in lipid, glucose, and energy metabolism. Dysregulation of BA homeostasis has been associated with NAFLD disease severity. Identification of nuclear receptors and G-protein-coupled receptors activated by different BAs not only significantly expanded the current understanding of NAFLD/NASH disease progression but also provided the opportunity to develop potential therapeutics for NAFLD/NASH. In this review, we will summarize the recent studies with a focus on BA-mediated signaling pathways in NAFLD/NASH. Furthermore, the therapeutic implications of targeting BA-mediated signaling pathways for NAFLD will also be discussed.

Bile acids (BA) are synthesized from cholesterol in the liver. They are essential for promotion of the absorption of lipids, cholesterol, and lipid-soluble vitamins from the intestines. BAs are hormones that regulate nutrient metabolism by activating nuclear receptors (farnesoid X receptor (FXR), pregnane X receptor, vitamin D) and G protein-coupled receptors (e.g., TGR5, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2)) in the liver and intestines. In the liver, S1PR2 activation by conjugated BAs activates the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and AKT signaling pathways, and nuclear sphingosine kinase 2. The latter produces sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), an inhibitor of histone deacetylases 1/2, which allows for the differential up-regulation of expression of genes involved in the metabolism of sterols and lipids. We discuss here the emerging concepts of the interactions of BAs, FXR, insulin, S1P signaling and nutrient metabolism. Keywords: Sphingosine-1-phosphate, Sphingosine kinase 2, Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2, Fatty liver, Epigenetics

Gastric cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Chemotherapy has improved long-term survival of patients with gastric cancer. Unfortunately, cancer readily develops resistance to apoptosis-inducing agents. New mechanisms, inducing caspase-independent paraptosis-like cell death in cancer cells is presently emerging as a potential direction. We previously developed a curcumin analog B63 as an anti-cancer agent in pre-clinical evaluation. In the present study, we evaluated the effect and mechanism of B63 on gastric cancer cells. Our studies show that B63 targets TrxR1 protein and increases cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, which results in halting gastric cancer cells and inducing caspase-independent paraptotic modes of death. The paraptosis induced by B63 was mediated by ROS-mediated ER stress and MAPK activation. Either overexpression of TrxR1 or suppression of ROS normalized B63-induced paraptosis in gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, B63 caused paraptosis in 5-fluorouracil-resistant gastric cancer cells, and B63 treatment reduced the growth of gastric cancer xenografts, which was associated with increased ROS and paraptosis. Collectively, our findings provide a novel strategy for the treatment of gastric cancer by utilizing TrxR1-mediated oxidative stress generation and subsequent cell paraptosis. Keywords: Oxidative stress, Paraptosis, Gastric cancer, TrxR1, ER stress, Drug resistance

Background and Aims: The disease progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) from simple steatosis (NAFL) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is driven by multiple factors. Berberine (BBR) is an ancient Chinese medicine and has various beneficial effects on metabolic diseases, including NAFLD/NASH. However, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood due to the limitation of the NASH animal models used. Methods: A high-fat and high-fructose diet-induced mouse model of NAFLD, the best available preclinical NASH mouse model, was used. RNAseq, histological, and metabolic pathway analyses were used to identify the potential signaling pathways modulated by BBR. LC–MS was used to measure bile acid levels in the serum and liver. The real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis were used to validate the RNAseq data. Results: BBR not only significantly reduced hepatic lipid accumulation by modulating fatty acid synthesis and metabolism but also restored the bile acid homeostasis by targeting multiple pathways. In addition, BBR markedly inhibited inflammation by reducing immune cell infiltration and inhibition of neutrophil activation and inflammatory gene expression. Furthermore, BBR was able to inhibit hepatic fibrosis by modulating the expression of multiple genes involved in hepatic stellate cell activation and cholangiocyte proliferation. Consistent with our previous findings, BBR’s beneficial effects are linked with the downregulation of microRNA34a and long noncoding RNA H19, which are two important players in promoting NASH progression and liver fibrosis. Conclusion: BBR is a promising therapeutic agent for NASH by targeting multiple pathways. These results provide a strong foundation for a future clinical investigation.

Based on research carried out over the last decade, it has become increasingly evident that bile acids act not only as detergents, but also as important signaling molecules that exert various biological effects via activation of specific nuclear receptors and cell signaling pathways. Bile acids also regulate the expression of numerous genes encoding enzymes and proteins involved in the synthesis and metabolism of bile acids, glucose, fatty acids, and lipoproteins, as well as energy metabolism. Receptors activated by bile acids include, farnesoid X receptor α, pregnane X receptor, vitamin D receptor, and G protein-coupled receptors, TGR5, muscarinic receptor 2, and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR)2. The ligand of S1PR2, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), is a bioactive lipid mediator that regulates various physiological and pathophysiological cellular processes. We have recently reported that conjugated bile acids, via S1PR2, activate and upregulate nuclear sphingosine kinase 2, increase nuclear S1P, and induce genes encoding enzymes and transporters involved in lipid and sterol metabolism in the liver. Here, we discuss the role of bile acids and S1P signaling in the regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism and in hepatobiliary diseases.

Activation of hepatic macrophages represents the critical driving force to promote cholestatic liver injury. Exosomes, as important small extracellular vesicles released by almost all types of cells, contribute to intercellular communication. We previously reported that cholangiocyte-derived exosomal long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) H19 plays a vital role in disrupting bile acid homeostasis in hepatocytes and promoting the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Exosomal H19 derived from cholangiocytes was rapidly taken up by Kupffer cells. However, the mechanistic links between exosomal lncRNA H19 and macrophage-driven inflammation in cholestasis remain unclear. Here, we reported that the hepatic H19 level was closely correlated with macrophage activation and hepatic fibrosis in both Mdr2-/- and bile duct ligation (BDL) cholestatic mouse models, as well as in human primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) patients. Exosomal H19 significantly induced the expression and secretion of chemokine (C−C motif) ligand 2 (CCL-2) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in Kupffer cells. H19-enriched exosomes enhanced the activation M1 polarization of Kupffer cells and promoted the recruitment and differentiation of bone marrow-derived macrophages, which were inhibited by a CCL-2 pharmacological inhibitor. In conclusion, Cholangiocyte-derived exosomal H19 played a critical role in macrophage activation, differentiation, and chemotaxis through CCL-2/CCR-2 signaling pathways, which represent a therapeutic target for cholestatic liver diseases.

The liver is the central organ involved in lipid metabolism. Dyslipidemia and its related disorders, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity and other metabolic diseases, are of increasing public health concern due to their increasing prevalence in the population. Besides their well-characterized functions in cholesterol homoeostasis and nutrient absorption, bile acids are also important metabolic regulators and function as signaling hormones by activating specific nuclear receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, and multiple signaling pathways. Recent studies identified a new signaling pathway by which conjugated bile acids (CBA) activate the extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway via sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2). CBA-induced activation of S1PR2 is a key regulator of sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2) and hepatic gene expression. This review focuses on recent findings related to the role of bile acids/S1PR2-mediated signaling pathways in regulating hepatic lipid metabolism.

Triptolide (TP), a diterpenoid isolated from Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F, has an excellent pharmacological profile of immunosuppression and anti-tumor activities, but its clinical applications are severely restricted due to its severe and cumulative toxicities. The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is the master bile acid nuclear receptor and plays an important role in maintaining hepatic metabolism homeostasis. Hepatic Sirtuin (Sirt1) is a key regulator of the FXR signaling pathway and hepatic metabolism homeostasis. The aims of this study were to determine whether Sirt1/FXR signaling pathway plays a critical role in TP-induced hepatotoxicity. Our study revealed that the intragastric administration of TP (400 μg/kg body weight) for 28 consecutive days increased bile acid accumulation, suppressed hepatic gluconeogenesis in rats. The expression of bile acid transporter BSEP was significantly reduced and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) was markedly increased in the TP-treated group, whereas the genes responsible for hepatic gluconeogenesis were suppressed in the TP-treated group. TP also modulated the FXR and Sirt1 by decreasing its expression both in vitro and in vivo. The Sirt1 agonist SRT1720 and the FXR agonist obeticholic acid (OCA) were used both in vivo and in vitro. The remarkable liver damage induced by TP was attenuated by treatment with either SRT1720 or OCA, as reflected by decreased levels of serum total bile acids and alkaline phosphatase and increased glucose levels. Meanwhile, SRT1720 significantly alleviated TP-induced FXR suppression and FXR-targets involved in hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism. Based on these results, we conclude that Sirt1/FXR inactivation plays a critical role in TP-induced hepatotoxicity. Moreover, Sirt1/FXR axis represents a novel therapeutic target that could potentially ameliorate TP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Bile acids are important regulatory molecules that can activate specific nuclear receptors and cell signaling pathways in the liver and gastrointestinal tract. In the current study, the chronic bile fistula (CBF) rat model and primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) were used to study the regulation of gluconeogenic genes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase) and the gene encoding short heterodimeric partner (SHP) by taurocholate (TCA). The intestinal infusion of TCA into the CBF rat rapidly (1 h) activated the AKT (∼9-fold) and ERK1/2 (3- to 5-fold) signaling pathways, downregulated (∼50%, 30 min) the mRNA levels of PEPCK and G-6-Pase, and induced (14-fold in 3 h) SHP mRNA. TCA rapidly (∼50%, 1–2 h) downregulated PEPCK and G-6-Pase mRNA levels in PRH. The downregulation of these genes by TCA was blocked by pretreatment of PRH with pertussis toxin (PTX). In PRH, TCA plus insulin showed a significantly stronger inhibition of glucose secretion/synthesis from lactate and pyruvate than either alone. The induction of SHP mRNA in PRH was strongly blocked by inhibition of PI3 kinase or PKCζ by specific chemical inhibitors or knockdown of PKCζ by siRNA encoded by a recombinant lentivirus. Activation of the insulin signaling pathway appears to be linked to the upregulation of farnesoid X receptor functional activity and SHP induction.

In the past, bile acids were considered to be just detergent molecules derived from cholesterol in the liver. They were known to be important for the solubilization of cholesterol in the gallbladder and for stimulating the absorption of cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins, and lipids from the intestines. However, during the last two decades, it has been discovered that bile acids are regulatory molecules. Bile acids have been discovered to activate specific nuclear receptors (farnesoid X receptor, preganane X receptor, and vitamin D receptor), G protein coupled receptor TGR5 (TGR5), and cell signaling pathways (c-jun N-terminal kinase 1/2, AKT, and ERK 1/2) in cells in the liver and gastrointestinal tract. Activation of nuclear receptors and cell signaling pathways alter the expression of numerous genes encoding enzyme/proteins involved in the regulation of bile acid, glucose, fatty acid, lipoprotein synthesis, metabolism, transport, and energy metabolism. They also play a role in the regulation of serum triglyceride levels in humans and rodents. Bile acids appear to function as nutrient signaling molecules primarily during the feed/fast cycle as there is a flux of these molecules returning from the intestines to the liver following a meal. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of how bile acids regulate hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism through the activation of specific nuclear receptors and cell signaling pathways.—Hylemon, P. B., H. Zhou, W. M. Pandak, S. Ren, G. Gil, and P. Dent. Bile acids as regulatory molecules.

BACKGROUND:Human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most malignant cancer worldwide. Despite significant advances in the delivery of treatment and surgical reconstruction, there is no significant improvement of mortality rates for this disease in the past decades. Radiotherapy is the core component of the clinical combinational therapies for HNSCC. However, the tumor cells have a tendency to develop radiation resistance, which is a major barrier to effective treatment. HIV protease inhibitors (HIV PIs) have been reported with radiosensitizing activities in HNSCC cells, but the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Our previous study has shown that HIV PIs induce cell apoptosis via activation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The aim of this study was to examine the role of ER stress in HIV PI-induced radiosensitivity in human HNSCC. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:HNSCC cell lines, SQ20B and FaDu, and the most commonly used HIV PIs, lopinavir and ritonavir (L/R), were used in this study. Clonogenic assay was used to assess the radiosensitivity. Cell viability, apoptosis and cell cycle were analyzed using Cellometer Vision CBA. The mRNA and protein levels of ER stress-related genes (eIF2α, CHOP, ATF-4, and XBP-1), as well as cell cycle related protein, cyclin D1, were detected by real time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. The results demonstrated that L/R dose-dependently sensitized HNSCC cells to irradiation and inhibited cell growth. L/R-induced activation of ER stress was correlated to down-regulation of cyclin D1 expression and cell cycle arrest under G0/G1 phase. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE:HIV PIs sensitize HNSCC cells to radiotherapy by activation of ER stress and induction of cell cycle arrest. Our results provided evidence that HIV PIs can be potentially used in combination with radiation in the treatment of HNSCC.

This study reports the discovery of a novel sulfonated oxysterol found at high levels in the mitochondria and nuclei of primary rat hepatocytes after overexpression of the gene encoding steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StarD1). Forty-eight hours after infection of primary rat hepatocytes with recombinant adenovirus encoding StarD1, rates of bile acid synthesis increased by 4-fold. Concurrently, [14C]cholesterol metabolites (oxysterols) were increased dramatically in both the mitochondria and nuclei of StarD1-overexpressing cells, but not in culture medium. A water-soluble [14C]oxysterol product was isolated and purified by chemical extraction and reverse-phase HPLC. Enzymatic digestion, HPLC, and tandem mass spectrometry analysis identified the water-soluble oxysterol as 5-cholesten-3β,25-diol 3-sulfonate. Further experiments detected this cholesterol metabolite in the nuclei of normal human liver tissues. Based upon these observations, we hypothesized a new pathway by which cholesterol is metabolized in the mitochondrion.

HIV protease inhibitor (PI), the core component of highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) for HIV infection, has been implicated in HAART-associated cardiovascular complications. Our previous studies have demonstrated that activation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is linked to HIV PI-induced inflammation and foam cell formation in macrophages. Raltegravir is a first-in-its-class HIV integrase inhibitor, the newest class of anti-HIV agents. We have recently reported that raltegravir has less hepatic toxicity and could prevent HIV PI-induced dysregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism by inhibiting ER stress. However, little information is available as to whether raltegravir would also prevent HIV PI-induced inflammatory response and foam cell formation in macrophages.In this study, we examined the effect of raltegravir on ER stress activation and lipid accumulation in cultured mouse macrophages (J774A.1), primary mouse macrophages, and human THP-1-derived macrophages, and further determined whether the combination of raltegravir with existing HIV PIs would potentially exacerbate or prevent the previously observed activation of inflammatory response and foam cell formation. The results indicated that raltegravir did not induce ER stress and inflammatory response in macrophages. Even more interestingly, HIV PI-induced ER stress, oxidative stress, inflammatory response and foam cell formation were significantly reduced by raltegravir. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis further demonstrated that raltegravir did not affect the uptake of HIV PIs in macrophages.Raltegravir could prevent HIV PI-induced inflammatory response and foam cell formation by inhibiting ER stress. These results suggest that incorporation of this HIV integrase inhibitor may reduce the cardiovascular complications associated with current HAART.

Apigenin is a non-toxic natural flavonoid that is abundantly present in common fruits and vegetables. It has been reported that apigenin has various beneficial health effects such as anti-inflammation and chemoprevention. Multiple studies have shown that inflammation is an important risk factor for atherosclerosis, diabetes, sepsis, various liver diseases, and other metabolic diseases. Although it has been long realized that apigenin has anti-inflammatory activities, the underlying functional mechanisms are still not fully understood.In the present study, we examined the effect of apigenin on LPS-induced inflammatory response and further elucidated the potential underlying mechanisms in human THP-1-induced macrophages and mouse J774A.1 macrophages. By using the PrimePCR array, we were able to identify the major target genes regulated by apigenin in LPS-mediated immune response. The results indicated that apigenin significantly inhibited LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α through modulating multiple intracellular signaling pathways in macrophages. Apigenin inhibited LPS-induced IL-1β production by inhibiting caspase-1 activation through the disruption of the NLRP3 inflammasome assembly. Apigenin also prevented LPS-induced IL-6 and IL-1β production by reducing the mRNA stability via inhibiting ERK1/2 activation. In addition, apigenin significantly inhibited TNF-α and IL-1β-induced activation of NF-κB.Apigenin Inhibits LPS-induced Inflammatory Response through multiple mechanisms in macrophages. These results provided important scientific evidences for the potential application of apigenin as a therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases.

BackgroundHIV protease inhibitors (PI) are core components of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), the most effective treatment for HIV infection currently available. However, HIV PIs have now been linked to lipodystrophy and dyslipidemia, which are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome. Our previous studies have shown that HIV PIs activate endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and disrupt lipid metabolism in hepatocytes and macrophages. Yet, little is known on how HIV PIs disrupt lipid metabolism in adipocytes, a major cell type involved in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome.Methodology and principal findingsCultured and primary mouse adipocytes and human adipocytes were used to examine the effect of frequently used HIV PIs in the clinic, lopinavir/ritonavir, on adipocyte differentiation and further identify the underlying molecular mechanism of HIV PI-induced dysregulation of lipid metabolism in adipocytes. The results indicated that lopinavir alone or in combination with ritonavir, significantly activated the ER stress response, inhibited cell differentiation, and induced cell apoptosis in adipocytes. In addition, HIV PI-induced ER stress was closely linked to inhibition of autophagy activity. We also identified through the use of primary adipocytes of CHOP(-/-) mice that CHOP, the major transcriptional factor of the ER stress signaling pathway, is involved in lopinavir/ritonavir-induced inhibition of cell differentiation in adipocytes. In addition, lopinavir/ritonavir-induced ER stress appears to be associated with inhibition of autophagy activity in adipocytes.Conclusion and significanceActivation of ER stress and impairment of autophagy activity are involved in HIV PI-induced dysregulation of lipid metabolism in adipocytes. The key components of ER stress and autophagy signaling pathways are potential therapeutic targets for HIV PI-induced metabolic side effects in HIV patients.

BackgroundHIV protease inhibitor (PI)-induced inflammatory response in macrophages is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. We have previously reported that berberine (BBR), a traditional herbal medicine, prevents HIV PI-induced inflammatory response through inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in macrophages. We also found that HIV PIs significantly increased the intracellular concentrations of BBR in macrophages. However, the underlying mechanisms of HIV PI-induced BBR accumulation are unknown. This study examined the role of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in HIV PI-mediated accumulation of BBR in macrophages.Methodology and principal findingsCultured mouse RAW264.7 macrophages, human THP-1-derived macrophages, Wild type MDCK (MDCK/WT) and human P-gp transfected (MDCK/P-gp) cells were used in this study. The intracellular concentration of BBR was determined by HPLC. The activity of P-gp was assessed by measuring digoxin and rhodamine 123 (Rh123) efflux. The interaction between P-gp and BBR or HIV PIs was predicated by Glide docking using Schrodinger program. The results indicate that P-gp contributed to the efflux of BBR in macrophages. HIV PIs significantly increased BBR concentrations in macrophages; however, BBR did not alter cellular HIV PI concentrations. Although HIV PIs did not affect P-gp expression, P-gp transport activities were significantly inhibited in HIV PI-treated macrophages. Furthermore, the molecular docking study suggests that both HIV PIs and BBR fit the binding pocket of P-gp, and HIV PIs may compete with BBR to bind P-gp.Conclusion and significanceHIV PIs increase the concentration of BBR by modulating the transport activity of P-gp in macrophages. Understanding the cellular mechanisms of potential drug-drug interactions is critical prior to applying successful combinational therapy in the clinic.

To research rumor diffusion in social friend network, based on interests, a dynamic friend network is proposed, which has the characteristics of clustering and community, and a diffusion model is also proposed. With this friend network and rumor diffusion model, based on the zombie-city model, some simulation experiments to analyze the characteristics of rumor diffusion in social friend networks have been conducted. The results show some interesting observations: (1) positive information may evolve to become a rumor through the diffusion process that people may modify the information by word of mouth; (2) with the same average degree, a random social network has a smaller clustering coefficient and is more beneficial for rumor diffusion than the dynamic friend network; (3) a rumor is spread more widely in a social network with a smaller global clustering coefficient than in a social network with a larger global clustering coefficient; and (4) a network with a smaller clustering coefficient has a larger efficiency.

The role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a rapidly emerging field of interest in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases. Recent studies have shown that chronic activation of ER stress is closely linked to dysregulation of lipid metabolism in several metabolically important cells including hepatocytes, macrophages, β-cells, and adipocytes. Adipocytes are one of the major cell types involved in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. Recent advances in dissecting the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of adipogenesis and lipid metabolism indicate that activation of ER stress plays a central role in regulating adipocyte function. In this paper, we discuss the current understanding of the potential role of ER stress in lipid metabolism in adipocytes. In addition, we touch upon the interaction of ER stress and autophagy as well as inflammation. Inhibition of ER stress has the potential of decreasing the pathology in adipose tissue that is seen with energy overbalance.

HIV protease inhibitor (PI)-induced inflammatory response plays an important role in HIV PI-associated dyslipidemia and cardiovascular complications. This study examined the effect of berberine, a traditional herb medicine, on HIV PI-induced inflammatory response and further investigated the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms in macrophages.Cultured mouse J774A.1 macrophages and primary mouse macrophages were used in this study. The expression of TNF-alpha and IL-6 were detected by real-time RT-PCR and ELISA. Activations of ER stress and ERK signaling pathways were determined by Western blot analysis. Immunofluorescent staining was used to determine the intracellular localization of RNA binding protein HuR. RNA-pull down assay was used to determine the association of HuR with endogenous TNF-alpha and IL-6. Berberine significantly inhibited HIV PI-induced TNF-alpha and IL-6 expression by modulating ER stress signaling pathways and subsequent ERK activation, in turn preventing the accumulation of the RNA binding protein HuR in cytosol and inhibiting the binding of HuR to the 3'-UTRs of TNF-alpha and IL-6 in macrophages.Inhibition of ER stress represents a key mechanism by which berberine prevents HIV PI-induced inflammatory response. Our findings provide a new insight into the molecular mechanisms of berberine and show the potential application of berberine as a complimentary therapeutic agent for HIV infection.

Traditional farming practices suggest that cultivation of a mixture of crop species in the same field through temporal and spatial management may be advantageous in boosting yields and preventing disease, but evidence from large-scale field testing is limited. Increasing crop diversity through intercropping addresses the problem of increasing land utilization and crop productivity. In collaboration with farmers and extension personnel, we tested intercropping of tobacco, maize, sugarcane, potato, wheat and broad bean--either by relay cropping or by mixing crop species based on differences in their heights, and practiced these patterns on 15,302 hectares in ten counties in Yunnan Province, China. The results of observation plots within these areas showed that some combinations increased crop yields for the same season between 33.2 and 84.7% and reached a land equivalent ratio (LER) of between 1.31 and 1.84. This approach can be easily applied in developing countries, which is crucial in face of dwindling arable land and increasing food demand.