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Giant clams are conspicuous bivalves inhabiting Indo-Pacific reefs. Since Rosewater’s seminal paper in 1965, the number of giant clam species described or resurrected has exactly doubled. The increased number of species reported and accessibility to genetic material of rare or uncommon species therefore call for a reappraisal of the phylogenetic relationships within the Tridacninae subfamily. Here, we aim to reconstruct the evolutionary relationships among all 12 extant species by performing a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial genome and nuclear 18S rRNA data from a combination of genome skimming, Sanger sequencing and previously published sequences. Comparing the mitogenomes among Tridacninae species, we report two new findings: (1) the T. crocea mitogenome length obtained here (18,266 bp) is shorter than previously known, and (2) the mitochondrial gene order in T. crocea and T. squamosa differs from the other species. Our phylogeny based on a concatenated 16-gene dataset (15 mitochondrial markers and nuclear 18S rRNA) reveals highly supported relationships within and between the three subgenera, Tridacna (Tridacna), Tridacna (Persikima) and Tridacna (Chametrachea). Overall, the inclusion of new molecular markers greatly improves the confidence and support for the subfamily’s phylogeny. The availability of this comprehensive phylogenetic dataset serves as the foremost baseline of Tridacninae relationships to support future studies examining giant clam systematics, ecology and conservation.

The scleractinian coral Cyphastrea is a common and widespread genus throughout the coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific. Little is known about the phylogenetic relationships within this taxon and species identification is based mainly on traditional skeletal characters, such as the number of septa, septa cycles, growth form and corallite dimensions. Here we present the first focussed reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships among Cyphastrea species, analysing 57 colonies from the Red Sea, where five morphospecies live in sympatry. Analyses based on three loci (nuclear histone H3, 28S rDNA and a mitochondrial intergenic region) reveal the existence of three well-supported molecular lineages. None of the five previously defined morphospecies are monophyletic and they cluster into two clades, suggesting the need of a systematic revision in Cyphastrea. The third lineage is described as C. magna Benzoni & Arrigoni, sp. nov., a new reef coral species collected from the northern and central Red Sea. Cyphastrea magna Benzoni & Arrigoni, sp. nov. is characterised by the largest corallite diameter among known Cyphastrea species, a wide trabecular columella >1/4 of calice width, and 12 equal primary septa. This study suggests that morphology-based taxonomy in Cyphastrea may not identify monophyletic units and strengthens the application of genetics in coral systematics.

P. pulcher sp. nov. (figures 61, 62) Diagnosis. Head with antennal scrobe concolorous with other parts of face, yellow; occiput sharply margined; post-occipital carina absent. Pedicel yellow. Clava about 1.2 times as long as broad, obtuse. Pronotum rounded into neck. Mid lobe of mesoscutum and scutellum completely yellow. Axillae sculptured. Reticulations transverse on scutellum. Hind legs completely yellow. Description. Head mostly yellow with occiput and area around ocelli black; occipital carina present, developed into translucent lamina; post-occipital carina absent. Antennal scrobe concolorous with other parts of face, yellow. Scape and pedicel yellow. Flagellum concolorous. Funicular segments all longer than broad, not becoming shorter and broadened towards clava simultaneously, with F4 samely separated from F3 and clava, and distinctly four-segmented; F1 1.7 times as long as broad. Clava medially same breadth as funicle, obtuse, around 1.2 times as long as broad. Dark parts on mesosoma black. Pronotum with yellow, narrow, transverse marking posteriorly, which part appears to be translucent, rounded into neck, without distinct transverse carina anteriorly. Mid lobe of mesoscutum completely yellow, with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum, without longitudinal median carina. Axillae completely yellow, reticulate and bare. Axillula completely yellow. Scutellum completely yellow, without longitudinal median carina or transverse carinae originating from median carina to grooves, reticulate. Scutellum with sublateral grooves broad, crenulate, extending beyond posterior pair of setae, united at middle point posteriorly. Reticulations on scutellum completely distinct, transverse and engraved all over the dorsum. The area lateral to the sublateral grooves smooth. Dorsellum completely dark including lateral area, smooth, without tooth-like structure directing posteriorly. Propodeum completely dark and smooth. Propodeal median carina at least translucent along margins, thus appearing yellow, raised into a cup-shape but not too much as a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance. Petiole transverse, smooth. Hind legs completely yellow. One hind tibial spur more than 1.5 times length of the first tarsomere. Hind tarsi with the first segment at least as long as the second. Material examined. Holotype ”, Hubei, Xuan’en, 5 August 1989, 1000 m (Huang Da-Wei) (IZCAS). Distribution. China: Hubei., Published as part of Zhu, C. D. & Huang, D. W., 2004, A study of Platyplectrus Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in mainland China, pp. 2183-2209 in Journal of Natural History 38 (17) on pages 2204-2205

P. pannonica (Erdös, 1966) (figures 55, 56) Euplectromorpha pannonica Erdös, 1966: 398. Holotype ”, Hungary (HNHM, examined). Platyplectrus pannonica (Erdös); Bouček, 1988: 635. Diagnosis. Head with dark parts metallic green; occiput sharply margined, without occipital carina; post-occipital carina absent. Antenna with pedicel dark, flagellum with segments concolorous; clava acute. Pronotum rounded into neck, without distinct transverse carina anteriorly. Mesosoma completely dark. Mid lobe of mesoscutum covered with setae all over the dorsum. Axillae with setae. Scutellum with sublateral grooves broad, grooves reticulate at bottom, and the area lateral to the grooves sculptured; reticulations transverse on anterior part, regularly rounded on posterior part on scutellum. Description. Head completely metallic green. Occiput sharply margined; occipital or post-occipital carina absent. Scape yellow; pedicel dark. Flagellum concolorous. Funicle with all segments longer than broad, with F4 samely separated from F3 and clava, and distinctly four-segmented, with segments not becoming shorter and broadened towards clava simultaneously; F1 1.7–4 times as long as broad. Clava medially same breadth as funicle, acute, 1.9–3 times as long as broad. Mesosoma completely black. Pronotum rounded into neck, without distinct transverse carina anteriorly. Mid lobe of mesoscutum with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum, without longitudinal median carina. Axillae reticulate, with more than two setae. Scutellum without longitudinal median carina, reticulate, with broad sublateral grooves united at middle point posteriorly. Reticulations on scutellum completely distinct and engraved all over the dorsum, transverse on anterior part, regularly rounded on posterior part. Area lateral to sublateral grooves engravely reticulate. Dorsellum smooth, without tooth-like structure directing posteriorly. Propodeum completely smooth, with median carina at least translucent along margins, thus appearing yellow, raised into a cup-shape, not raised too much anteriorly into a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance, without short carinae attached. Petiole transverse and smooth. Hind coxae completely dark. Hind femora yellow, dark on dorsal margin, or mostly dark, except base and apex yellow. Hind tibiae yellow, with one spur more than 1.5 times length of the first tarsomere. Hind tarsi with the first segment at least as long as the second, yellow. Variations. The male paratype of this species has sensory plates on each funicular segment protruding beyond each segment. Specimens from Hunan have the basal half of the hind coxae dark, but paler apically; while those from Yunnan have hind femora mostly dark. Material examined. Type material deposited in HNMH: Holotype 1”, Hungary: Bakonv, 22 October 1955, on Quercus cerris L. (Erdös) (Hym. Typ. No. 4721, Mus. Budapest). Paratypes 1”, Hungary: Nadap, 14 November 1951, on fakéreg alól (bark) (Kaszab) (Hym. Typ. No. 4726, Mus. Budapest); 2””, Hungary: Velencei-h, Nadap, 14 November 1951, on fakéreg alól (bark) (Kaszab) (Hym. Typ. No. 4725 and 4727, Mus. Budapest); 1”, Hungary: Velenci-h. Nadap 14 November 1954 (Kaszab), on fakéreg alól (Hym. Typ. No. 4713 Mus. Budapest). Allotype 1„, Hungary: Budapest, Biró, 1929 (Erdös) (Hym. Typ. No. 4722, Mus. Budapest). Chinese material deposited in IZCAS: 1”, Beijing, Changlingxiao, 5 September 1984 (Huang Da-Wei); 2„„, 18””, Hunan, Hanshou, 15 August 1982, ex. Cifuna locuples Walker [Lymantriidae] (Liao Ding-xi); 5„„, 1”, Yunnan, Lijiang, Baishui, 17 July 1984, 2800 m (Li Chang-fang); 1„, Yunnan, Dêqên, 4 August 1984, 2300 m (Li Chang-fang); 2„„, 1”, Yunnan, Lijiang, Lidiping, 14 August 1984, 3400 m (Li Chang-fang); 1”, Tibet, Zayü, 19 July 1997 (Zhu Chao-dong). Determined material deposited in BMNH: 1”, France: B. Du Rhone, 24 July 1991 (Fonscolombe); 1”, Spain: Calella d. Costa (Barcelona), July 1971 (Z. Bouček). Distribution. * China: Beijing, Hunan, Yunnan, Tibet; Germany; Hungary; Italy; Yugoslavia; France; Spain. Newly recorded from China., Published as part of Zhu, C. D. & Huang, D. W., 2004, A study of Platyplectrus Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in mainland China, pp. 2183-2209 in Journal of Natural History 38 (17) on pages 2202-2203, {"references":["ERDOS, J., 1966, Nonnullae Eulophidae novae Hungaricae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea), Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici (Zoologici), 58, 395 - 420 [in Latin].","BOUCEK, Z., 1988, Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). A Biosystematic Revision of Genera of Fourteen Families, with a Reclassification of Species (Wallingford, Oxon: CAB International; Aberystwyth: Cambrian News), 832 pp."]}

P. setulosus sp. nov. (figures 25–36, 63, 64) Diagnosis. Head with dark parts not green; occiput rounded off; post-occipital carina absent. Pedicel yellow; clava around 1.2–1.6 times as long as broad. Funicular segments all longer than broad. Mesosoma completely dark. Pronotum rounded into neck, without distinct transverse carina anteriorly. Axillae with setae. Mid lobe of mesoscutum with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum. Scutellum smooth. Scutellum with sublateral grooves narrow. Propodeal median carina not raised, concolorous to other parts of the propodeum. Petiole not apparent. Hind femora yellow. Description. Head completely black; occiput rounded off; post-occipital carina absent. Scape yellow; pedicel yellow; flagellum concolorous. Funicular segments all longer than broad, with segments not becoming shorter and broadened towards clava simultaneously, with F4 samely separated from F3 and clava, and distinctly four-segmented; F1 1.7–4 times as long as broad. Clava medially same breadth as funicle, acute, around 1.2–1.6 times as long as broad. Mesosoma completely black. Pronotum rounded into neck, without distinct transverse carina anteriorly. Mid lobe of mesoscutum with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum, without longitudinal median carina. Axillae smooth, with more than two setae. Scutellum without longitudinal median carina, smooth, with sublateral grooves narrow, united at middle point posteriorly. The area lateral to the sublateral grooves smooth. Dorsellum smooth, without tooth-like structure directing posteriorly. Propodeum completely smooth, with median carina concolorous to other parts of the propodeum, not raised, Y-shaped, without short carinae attached. Petiole not apparent. Hind coxae completely dark. Hind femora and hind tibiae yellow. Hind tibial with one spur more than 1.5 times length of the first tarsomere. Hind tarsi with the first segment at least as long as the second, yellow. Material examined. Holotype ”, Fujian, Fuzhou, 9 May 1956, ex. larva of Limacodidae (Zhao Xiu-fu). Paratypes 10””, same data as holotype. Distribution. China: Fujian., Published as part of Zhu, C. D. & Huang, D. W., 2004, A study of Platyplectrus Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in mainland China, pp. 2183-2209 in Journal of Natural History 38 (17) on page 2205

P. natadae Ferrière, 1941 Platyplectrus natadae Ferrière, 1941: 21. Lectotype ” designated by Wijesekara and Schauff, 1994: 31. Sri Lanka (BMNH, not examined). Diagnosis. Head partly yellow; occiput sharply margined. Scape at least partly dark; clava acute, 1.9–3 times as long as broad. Pronotum dark between transverse carina and neck. Mid lobe of mesoscutum completely yellow and covered with setae all over the dorsum; scutellum smooth, with sublateral grooves sub-parallel posteriorly, broad. Dorsellum different from lateral area, which is dark brown. Propodeal median carina raised anteriorly into a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance. Petiole not apparent. Description. Head mostly yellow with occiput or area around ocelli black; occiput sharply margined; occipital carina present and developed into translucent lamina; post-occipital carina present. Antennal scrobe black. Scape dark on dorsal margin. Pedicel dark. Flagellum concolorous. Funicle with all segments longer than broad, with F4 samely separated from F3 and clava, and distinctly four-segmented, with segments not becoming shorter and broadened towards clava simultaneously; F1 around 3 times as long as broad. Clava medially same breadth as funicle, acute, 1.9–3 times as long as broad. Dark parts on mesosoma black. Pronotum with yellow parts occurring more than on posterior end, never translucent. Pronotum dark between transverse carina and neck, with distinct transverse carina anteriorly, without longitudinal, parallel, short carinae attaching to transverse carinae. Mid lobe of mesoscutum completely yellow, with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum, without longitudinal median carina. Axillae completely or mostly yellow with dark patch at lateral corners, smooth and bare. Axillula completely dark. Scutellum smooth, with median, longitudinal, dark stripe, without longitudinal median carina, with broad sublateral grooves sub-parallel posteriorly. Area between scutellar sublateral grooves completely yellow. Area lateral to sublateral grooves smooth. Dorsellum different from lateral area, which is dark brown, smooth, without tooth-like structure directing posteriorly. Propodeum completely dark and smooth, with median carina at least translucent along margins, thus appearing yellow, raised anteriorly into a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance, without short carinae attached. Petiole absent. Hind legs completely yellow. Hind coxae yellow. Hind femora yellow, dark on dorsal margin. Hind tibiae yellow, with one spur more than 1.5 times length of the first tarsomere. Hind tarsi with the first segment at least as long as the second, yellow. Material examined. Chinese material deposited in IZCAS: 1”, Hainan, Jianfeng Mts, 4 April 1984, 1350 m (Li Chang-fang). External material deposited in BMNH: 5””, Ceylon: Tailawakelle, July 1935, ex. Natada nararia (C. B. R. King), including two paralectotypes; 1”, Ceylon, September 1931, ex. Natada sp. (C. B. R. King). Distribution. * China: Hainan; Sri Lanka. Biology. Parasitoid of Natada nararia (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)., Published as part of Zhu, C. D. & Huang, D. W., 2004, A study of Platyplectrus Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in mainland China, pp. 2183-2209 in Journal of Natural History 38 (17) on pages 2199-2200, {"references":["FERRIERE, C., 1941, New species of Euplectrini (Hym. Chalcidoidea) from Europe, Africa and Asia, Bulletin of Entomological Research, 32, 17 - 48.","WIJESEKARA, G. A. W. and SCHAUFF, M. E., 1994, Revision of the tribe Euplectrini of Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), Oriental Insects, 28, 1 - 48."]}

P. obtusiclavatus sp. nov. (figures 57, 58) Diagnosis. Head with occiput sharply margined; post-occipital carina present (figure 57). Scape at least partly dark; pedicel dark; funicular segments all longer than broad; clava about 1.2 times as long as broad, obtuse. Pronotum mostly dark, with two symmetrical yellow patches on dorsum (figure 57). Scutellum smooth, with sublateral grooves narrow and not reaching posterior pair of scutellar setae. Dorsellum completely dark, including area laterally. Propodeal median carina raised anteriorly into a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance (figure 58). Remarks. This species is very similar to P. natadae in having transparent, elongate, raised propodeal carina. But it differs from latter species by having a longitudinal, dark strip on scutellum, completely dark dorsellum and hind coxae, as well as F1 around 3 times as long as broad. Description. Head mostly yellow with occiput and area around ocelli black; occipital carina present, developed into translucent lamina; post-occipital carina present; antennal scrobe black. Scape dark on dorsal margin; pedicel dark; flagellum concolorous, with all funicular segments longer than broad, not becoming shorter and broadened towards clava simultaneously; F1 1.7 times as long as broad; F4 samely separated from F3 and clava, and distinctly four-segmented. Clava medially same breadth as funicle, obtuse, around 1.2 times as long as broad. Dark parts on mesosoma black. Pronotum with yellow parts occurring more than on posterior end, never translucent. Pronotum mostly dark, with two symmetrical yellow patches on dorsum, with distinct transverse carina anteriorly, without longitudinal, parallel, short carinae attaching to the transverse carina. Mid lobe of mesoscutum mostly dark, with large, median yellow patch posteriorly, with engraved reticulations, covered with setae all over the dorsum, without median longitudinal carina. Axillae mostly dark, with yellow patch near to inner corners, smooth and bare. Axillula completely dark. Scutellum with median, longitudinal, dark stripe, without longitudinal median carina, smooth; sublateral grooves narrow, not reaching posterior pair of scutellar setae. Area between sublateral grooves completely yellow, differing from the area lateral to the grooves, which latter area is smooth. Dorsellum completely dark including lateral area, smooth, without tooth-like structure directing posteriorly. Propodeum completely dark and smooth, with median carina at least translucent along margins, thus appearing yellow, raised anteriorly into a translucent, elongate and tongue-shaped protuberance, without short carinae attached. Petiole not apparent. Hind coxae completely dark. Hind femora dark on dorsal margin. Hind tibiae yellow, with one tibial spur more than 1.5 times length of the first tarsomere. Hind tarsi with the first tarsomere fuscous, as long as the second. Material examined. Holotype ”, Yunnan, Lijiang, Ludian, Machang, July 1984, 3200 m (Li Chang-fang) (IZCAS). Distribution. China: Yunnan., Published as part of Zhu, C. D. & Huang, D. W., 2004, A study of Platyplectrus Ferrière (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in mainland China, pp. 2183-2209 in Journal of Natural History 38 (17) on pages 2200-2201