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Global potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soil are accelerating, with increases in the proportion of reactive nitrogen emitted as N2O, i.e., N2O emission factor (EF). Yet, the primary controls and underlying mechanisms of EFs remain unresolved. Based on two independent but complementary global syntheses, and three field studies determining effects of acidity on N2O EFs and soil denitrifying microorganisms, we show that soil pH predominantly controls N2O EFs and emissions by affecting the denitrifier community composition. Analysis of 5438 paired data points of N2O emission fluxes revealed a hump-shaped relationship between soil pH and EFs, with the highest EFs occurring in moderately acidic soils that favored N2O-producing over N2O-consuming microorganisms, and induced high N2O emissions. Our results illustrate that soil pH has a unimodal relationship with soil denitrifiers and EFs, and the net N2O emission depends on both the N2O/(N2O + N2) ratio and overall denitrification rate. These findings can inform strategies to predict and mitigate soil N2O emissions under future nitrogen input scenarios.

The impact of inter- and intraspecific neighboring plants on mixed legume-grass communities has rarely been explored in relation to seeded species patch size. In this study, two native perennial species, the legume alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and the grass tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea L.), were investigated as monocultures and in mixture. A three-year growth experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of plant-plant competitive interactions on fine-scale seeding patterns: monoculture, three different conspecific patch sizes (1.0, 0.5, and 0.25 m side length of squares) and a control in which the seeds were mixed and scattered (i.e., patches were not formed) as in conventional seeding. The results demonstrated significant differences in the mutual effect intensity in all conspecific patch sizes, indicating the presence of grass-legume interactions on mixed plant communities. Smaller patch sizes resulted in better facilitation by higher neighbor effect intensity when compared with a larger patch size and the conventional mixture. Seedings in the smallest patch size of 0.25 m × 0.25 m showed intra- and interspecific competition and significantly improved aboveground productivity compared with the other patch sizes. We directly quantified the variation of species neighbor effect intensity between grass and legume mixtures among different species patch sizes at seeding. Integrating this knowledge into species interaction models in plant community ecology could greatly enhance our understanding of species coexistence in grasslands as well as provide opportunities for manipulating competition to achieve specific agronomic aims.

Plant roots are the primary source of soil organic carbon (C) and critically support the growth and activities of microbes in the rhizosphere. Climate change factors may, however, modify root-microbial interactions and impact C dynamics in the rhizosphere. Yet, the direction and magnitude of interactive climate change effects, as well as the underlying mechanisms, remain unclear. Here we show evidence from a field experiment demonstrating that warming and precipitation changes strengthen root controls over litter decomposition in a semi-arid grassland. While warming and precipitation reduction suppressed microbial decomposition of root litter regardless of the root presence, precipitation increase stimulated litter decomposition only in the absence of roots, suggesting that plant competition for water constraints the activities of saprophytic microbes. Root presence increased microbial biomass but reduced microbial activities such as respiration, C cycling enzymes and litter decomposition, indicating that roots exert differential effects on microbes through altering C or water availability. In addition, nitrogen (N) input significantly reduced microbial biomass and microbial activities (respiration). Together, these results showed that alterations in soil moisture induced by climate change drivers critically modulate root controls over microbial decomposition in soil. Our findings suggest that warming-enhanced plant water utilization, combined with N-induced suppression of microbes, may provide a unique mechanism through which moderate increases in precipitation, warming and N input interactively suppress microbial decomposition, thereby facilitating short-term soil C sequestration in the arid and semi-arid grasslands.

Inputs of nitrogen into terrestrial ecosystems, mainly via the use of ammonium-based fertilizers in agroecosystems, are enormous, but the fate of this nitrogen under elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is not well understood. We have taken advantage of a 15-year free-air CO2 enrichment study to investigate the influence of elevated CO2 on the transformation of ammonium-nitrogen in a rice ecosystem in which ammonium is usually assumed to be stable under anaerobic conditions. We demonstrate that elevated CO2 causes substantial losses of ammonium-nitrogen that result from anaerobic oxidation of ammonium coupled to reduction of iron. We identify a new autotrophic member of the bacterial order Burkholderiales that may use soil CO2 as a carbon source to couple anaerobic ammonium oxidation and iron reduction. These findings offer insight into the coupled cycles of nitrogen and iron in terrestrial ecosystems and raise questions about the loss of ammonium-nitrogen from arable soils under future climate-change scenarios.

Livestock grazing has been shown to alter the structure and functions of grassland ecosystems. It is well acknowledged that grazing pressure is one of the strongest drivers of ecosystem-level effects of grazing, but few studies have assessed how grazing pressure impacts grassland biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF). Here, we assessed how different metrics of biodiversity (i.e., plants and soil microbes) and EMF responded to seven different grazing treatments based on an 11-year field experiment in semi-arid Inner Mongolian steppe. We found that soil organic carbon, plant-available nitrogen and plant functional diversity all decreased even at low grazing pressure, while above-ground primary production and bacterial abundance decreased only at high levels of grazing pressure. Structural equation models revealed that EMF was driven by direct effects of grazing, rather than the effects of grazing on plant or microbial community composition. Grazing effects on plant functional diversity and soil microbial abundance did have moderate effects on EMF, while plant richness did not. Synthesis. Our results showed ecosystem functions differ in their sensitivity to grazing pressure, requiring a low grazing threshold to achieve multiple goals in the Eurasian steppe. A plain language summary is available for this article.

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition in forests can affect soil microbial growth and turnover directly through increasing N availability and indirectly through altering plant‐derived carbon (C) availability for microbes. This impacts microbial residues (i.e., amino sugars), a major component of soil organic carbon (SOC). Previous studies in forests have so far focused on the impact of understory N addition on microbes and microbial residues, but the effect of N deposition through plant canopy, the major pathway of N deposition in nature, has not been explicitly explored. In this study, we investigated whether and how the quantities (25 and 50 kg N ha−1 year−1) and modes (canopy and understory) of N addition affect soil microbial residues in a temperate broadleaf forest under 10‐year N additions. Our results showed that N addition enhanced the concentrations of soil amino sugars and microbial residual C (MRC) but not their relative contributions to SOC, and this effect on amino sugars and MRC was closely related to the quantities and modes of N addition. In the topsoil, high‐N addition significantly increased the concentrations of amino sugars and MRC, regardless of the N addition mode. In the subsoil, only canopy N addition positively affected amino sugars and MRC, implying that the indirect pathway via plants plays a more important role. Neither canopy nor understory N addition significantly affected soil microbial biomass (as represented by phospholipid fatty acids), community composition and activity, suggesting that enhanced microbial residues under N deposition likely stem from increased microbial turnover. These findings indicate that understory N addition may underestimate the impact of N deposition on microbial residues and SOC, highlighting that the processes of canopy N uptake and plant‐derived C availability to microbes should be taken into consideration when predicting the impact of N deposition on the C sequestration in temperate forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In terrestrial ecosystems, atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition has greatly increased N availability relative to other elements, particularly phosphorus (P). Alterations in the availability of N relative to P can affect plant growth rate and functional traits, as well as resource allocation to above- versus belowground biomass (MA and MB). Biomass allocation among individual plants is broadly size-dependent, and this can often be described as an allometric relationship between MA and MB, as represented by the equation MA=αMBβ, or log MA = logα + βlog MB. Here, we investigated whether the scaling exponent or regression slope may be affected by the N:P supply ratio. We hypothesized that the regression slope between MA and MB should be steeper under a high N:P supply ratio due to P limitation, and shallower under a low N:P supply ratio due to N limitation. To test these hypotheses, we experimentally altered the levels of N, P, and the N:P supply ratio (from 1.7:1 to 135:1) provided to five alpine species representing two functional groups (grasses and composite forbs) under greenhouse conditions; we then measured the effects of these treatments on plant morphology and tissue content (SLA, leaf area, and leaf and root N/P concentrations) and on the scaling relationship between MA and MB. Unbalanced N:P supply ratios generally negatively affected plant biomass, leaf area, and tissue nutrient concentration in both grasses and composite forbs. High N:P ratios increased tissue N:P ratios in both functional groups, but more in the two composite forbs than in the grasses. The positive regression slopes between log MA and log MB exhibited by plants raised under a N:P supply ratio of 135:1 were significantly steeper than those observed under the N:P ratio of 1.7:1 and 15:1.SynthesisPlant biomass allocation is highly plastic in response to variation in the N:P supply ratio. Studies of resource allocation of individual plants should focus on the effects of nutrient ratios as well as the availability of individual elements. The two forb species were more sensitive than grasses to unbalanced N:P supplies. To evaluate the adaptive significance of this plasticity, the effects of unbalanced N:P supply ratio on individual lifetime fitness must be measured.

Low available soil nitrogen (N) limits plant productivity in alpine regions, and alpine plants thus resorb and reallocate N from senescing tissues to conserve this limited N during the non‐growing season. However, the destination and extent of N redistribution during plant senescence among above‐ and below‐ground organs, let alone other processes of translocation outside of plants and into the soil components, remain poorly understood.Utilizing 15N stable isotope as a tracer, we quantified N redistribution among above‐ and below‐ground plant organs and different soil components during senescence in an alpine meadow ecosystem, and explored the relationship between 15N partitioning among plant–soil N pools with seasonal fluctuations of plant functional traits.We found a substantial depletion of 15N in fine roots (−40% ± 2.8%) and above‐ground tissues (−51% ± 5.1%), and an enhanced 15N retention primarily in coarse roots (+79% ± 27%) and soil organic matter (+37% ± 10%) during plant senescence, indicating a dual role of roots with coarse roots acting as an N sink and fine roots as a source of N recycling during senescence. In parallel, we observed a temporal variation in plant functional traits, representing a shift from more acquisitive to more conservative strategies as the growing season ends, such as higher coarse root N and coarse root to fine root ratio. The seasonal trait variations were highly correlated with the 15N retention in coarse roots and soil organic matter. Particularly, 15N retention in particulate and mineral‐associated organic matter increased by 30% ± 12% and 24% ± 9%, respectively, suggesting a potential pathway through which fine root and microbial mortality contribute to 15N redistribution into soil N pools during senescence.Synthesis. N redistribution and seasonal plant trait fluctuation facilitate plant N conservation and ecosystem N retention in the alpine system. This study suggests a coupled above‐ground‐below‐ground N conservation strategy that may optimize the temporal coupling between plant N demand and ecosystem N supply in N‐limited alpine ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil organic carbon (C) is the largest active C pool of Earth's surface and is thus vital in sustaining terrestrial productivity and climate stability. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbioses with most terrestrial plants and critically modulate soil C dynamics. Yet, it remains unclear whether and how AMF–root associations (i.e., mycorrhizae) interact with soil minerals to affect soil C cycling. Here we showed that the presence of both roots and AMF increased soil dissolved organic C and reactive Fe minerals, as well as litter decomposition and soil CO2 emissions. However, it reduced mineral‐associated C. Also, high‐resolution nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry images showed the existence of a thin coating (0.5–1.0 μm thick) of 56Fe16O− (Fe minerals) on the surface of 12C14N− (fungal biomass), illustrating the close physical association between fungal hyphae and soil Fe minerals. In addition, AMF genera were divergently related to reactive Fe minerals, with Glomus being positively but Paraglomus and Acaulospora negatively correlated with reactive Fe minerals. Moreover, the presence of roots and AMF, particularly when combined with litter addition, enhanced the abundances of several critical soil bacterial genera that are associated with the formation of reactive minerals in soils. A conceptual framework was further proposed to illustrate how AMF–root associations impact soil C cycling in the rhizosphere. Briefly, root exudates and the inoculated AMF not only stimulated the decomposition of litter and SOC and promoted the production of CO2 emission, but also drove soil C persistence by unlocking mineral elements and promoting the formation of reactive minerals. Together, these findings provide new insights into the mechanisms that underlie the formation of reactive minerals and have significant implications for understanding and managing soil C persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]