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This report is a reflective narrative, documenting the methods used to develop a policy framework for a National Strategy on Climate, Health and Well-being for Australia. The report aims to guide advocates, communities of practice and governments in developing a comprehensive policy response to climate change and its health impacts.

Livestock play a key role in the climate change debate. As with crop-based agriculture, the sector is both a net greenhouse gas emitter and vulnerable to climate change. At the same time, it is an essential food source for millions of people worldwide, with other functions apart from food security such as savings and insurance. By comparison with crop-based agriculture, the interactions of livestock and climate change have been much less studied. The debate around livestock is confusing due to the coexistence of multiple livestock farming systems with differing functions for humans, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profiles and different characteristics and boundary issues in their measurement, which are often pooled together. Consequently, the diversity of livestock farming systems and their functions to human systems are poorly represented and the role of the livestock sector in the climate change debate has not been adequately addressed. In this article, building upon the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC 5AR) findings, we review recent literature on livestock and climate change so as better to include this diversity in the adaptation and mitigation debate around livestock systems. For comparative purposes we use the same categories of managerial, technical, behavioral and policy-related action to organize both mitigation and adaptation options. We conclude that different livestock systems provide different functions to different human systems and require different strategies, so they cannot readily be pooled together. We also observe that, for the different livestock systems, several win-win strategies exist that effectively tackle both mitigation and adaptation options as well as food security.

Livestock play a key role in the climate change debate. As with crop-based agriculture, the sector is both a net greenhouse gas emitter and vulnerable to climate change. At the same time, it is an essential food source for millions of people worldwide, with other functions apart from food security such as savings and insurance. By comparison with crop-based agriculture, the interactions of livestock and climate change have been much less studied. The debate around livestock is confusing due to the coexistence of multiple livestock farming systems with differing functions for humans, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profiles and different characteristics and boundary issues in their measurement, which are often pooled together. Consequently, the diversity of livestock farming systems and their functions to human systems are poorly represented and the role of the livestock sector in the climate change debate has not been adequately addressed. In this article, building upon the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC 5AR) findings, we review recent literature on livestock and climate change so as better to include this diversity in the adaptation and mitigation debate around livestock systems. For comparative purposes we use the same categories of managerial, technical, behavioral and policy-related action to organize both mitigation and adaptation options. We conclude that different livestock systems provide different functions to different human systems and require different strategies, so they cannot readily be pooled together. We also observe that, for the different livestock systems, several win-win strategies exist that effectively tackle both mitigation and adaptation options as well as food security. WIREs Clim Change 2016, 7:869–892. doi: 10.1002/wcc.421

© 2016 The Authors. Climate change is a major threat to food security in Pacific Island countries, with declines in food production and increasing variability in food supplies already evident across the region. Such impacts have already led to observed consequences for human health, safety and economic prosperity. Enhancing the adaptive capacity of Pacific Island communities is one way to reduce vulnerability and is underpinned by the extent to which people can access, understand and use new knowledge to inform their decision-making processes. However, effective engagement of Pacific Island communities in climate adaption remains variable and is an ongoing and significant challenge. Here, we use a qualitative research approach to identify the impediments to engaging Pacific Island communities in the adaptations needed to safeguard food security. The main barriers include cultural differences between western science and cultural knowledge, a lack of trust among local communities and external scientists, inappropriate governance structures, and a lack of political and technical support. We identify the importance of adaptation science, local social networks, key actors (i.e., influential and trusted individuals), and relevant forms of knowledge exchange as being critical to overcoming these barriers. We also identify the importance of co-ordination with existing on-ground activities to effectively leverage, as opposed to duplicating, capacity.

Adaptation processes occur across all scales from individual to community, industry, regional, national and global. Understanding the adaptation process and supporting or enhancing it at various scales will be important for maintaining effective functioning of social and economic systems in the face of climate-driven changes. The effectiveness of adaptive responses will be influenced by (1) the operating context within which responses occur (e.g. the policy and governance setting); (2) the availability of effective adaptation options, and (3) the capacity of individuals to access support and implement adaptation options. For each of these areas we suggest actions that can be taken respectively by policy-makers, research and development providers, and enterprise managers. Strategies to enhance adaptive capacity at broad policy scales include investing in (1) climate-related natural, physical, financial, human and social assets; (2) financial incentives and other incentives that provide social status and/or reward early adopters; (3) climate research; (4) adaptive governance approaches that encourage climate-learning and adaptive management through developing effective environmental, economic and social feedback mechanisms; (5) "mainstreaming" climate change into all relevant government policies, particularly drought and natural resource management policies, and (6) addressing other key stressors that can interact with those of climate change. Research and extension agencies can help identify effective adaptation options by (1) applying existing knowledge in more effective and innovative ways including greater collaboration with decision-makers; (2) broadening the array of research approaches used to identify practical solutions, and (3) continuing basic research that fills fundamental knowledge gaps, tests the validity of key assumptions, and evaluates the effectiveness of adaptation options. At the enterprise level, adaptive capacity can be enhanced by (1) managing

Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change is a fundamental resource for primary industry professionals, land managers, policy makers, researchers and students involved in preparing Australia's primary industries for the challenges and opportunities of climate change. More than 30 authors have contributed to this book, which moves beyond describing the causes and consequences of climate change to providing options for people to work towards adaptation action. Climate change implications and adaptation options are given for the key Australian primary industries of horticulture, forestry, grains, rice, sugarcane, cotton, viticulture, broadacre grazing, intensive livestock industries, marine fisheries, and aquaculture and water resources. Case studies demonstrate the options for each industry. Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change summarises updated climate change scenarios for Australia with the latest climate science. It includes chapters on socio-economic and institutional considerations for adapting to climate change, greenhouse gas emissions sources and sinks, as well as risks and priorities for the future.

We highlight and discuss some priority challenges to be faced in adapting to climate change: managing risk and uncertainty; balancing incremental adaptation and transformational change; considering mitigation-adaptation interactions; conserving biodiversity and natural resources, and building adaptive capacity. Given the imperative for immediate action, decisions will have to be made while there is still some uncertainty about climate change and its impacts on primary industries. While climate change projections and assessments of climate change impacts will improve over time, these are unlikely to ever be entirely accurate and some uncertainty will always remain. Policy and management strategies will therefore have to take broad risk-based approaches that accommodate uncertainty (rather than focussing too narrowly on technical solutions to location-specific climate change projections). In the early stages of climate change, incremental changes in agricultural practices may be sufficient. But with greater levels of climate change, or for areas that are particularly vulnerable to climate change, transformative adaptations will be required. Where major transitions in agricultural practices are necessary, communities may require additional assistance. Climate change adaptation strategies will have to strike a balance that addresses both the technical and capacity issues. There will be a need to develop technical management options that are appropriate for altered future climate scenarios. However, it will also be essential to (1) support these technical developments by building capacity for communities to plan and implement adaptation strategies, and (2) address institutional and policy constraints to adaptation. While much of this book has focussed on initial actions that can be taken with what we currently know, significant knowledge gaps still need to be addressed before more comprehensive and effective adaptation strategies can be implemented.

There is a clear imperative for action to prepare agriculture to adapt to climate change. The agricultural sector in Australia, which is already constrained by a harsh environment, is particularly vulnerable to climate change with projected negative impacts on the amount, quality and reliability of production. Past greenhouse gas emissions have already committed the earth to at least several decades of continued warming, while emissions and climate indicators are currently tracking the most pessimistic IPCC scenarios. The benefits and positive opportunities presented by climate change may start to peak during the initial stages (possibly as late as mid-century), but the negative impacts are likely to lag behind, becoming progressively stronger over time and with greater build up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Caution is therefore needed not to underestimate the long-term challenge of climate change based on initial, more moderate experiences. Given the inherent uncertainty in the effects of climate change, there is a clear need to develop enhanced adaptive capacity in agricultural systems (including socio-economic and cultural/institutional structures) that is sufficiently robust to cope with a broad range of plausible scenarios. Synergies with existing government policies such as self-reliance in drought and related supporting programs as well as with institutions such as Landcare are needed to develop this capacity. This book has identified a number of potential options for primary industries to adapt to climate change. Few of these have been fully evaluated, but those that have suggest the benefits of adaptation are so significant that further systems analyses are warranted. Several adaptation priorities with broad applicability across the agricultural sector have been identified. In particular, a common adaptation option, at least in the short term, will be to improve and promote existing management strategies for dealing with climate variability. This w

The main projected challenges for the grazing industry under climate change are declines in pasture productivity, reduced forage quality, livestock heat stress, greater problems with some pests and weeds, more frequent droughts, more intense rainfall events, and greater risks of soil degradation. These challenges partly reflect the projected drying trend across the rangelands, which is uncertain, and, at least in some locations, climate conditions could become more favourable for pastoralism, presenting new opportunities. Uncertainties over which locations will fare better under climate change and which will be worst affected present a major challenge for adaptation at regional and property scales. Increased adoption of climate forecasting-based strategies for coping with climate variability will assist graziers to incrementally adjust management to "track" the early stages of climate change (but these strategies need to incorporate considerations of long-term climate change trends). The adaptation challenge and opportunity need to be clearly defined by quantifying the range of plausible impacts that uncertain climate change could have on the grazing industry and framing adaptation options in relation to existing management pressures. Likely responses of graziers and policy-makers to these impacts need to be determined and comprehensively evaluated. The most arid and least productive rangelands may be the most severely impacted by climate change, while the more productive eastern and northern grazing lands may provide some opportunities for slight increases in production. However, a rigorous analysis of the regional variation in impacts of projected climate change on grazing lands still needs to be conducted, allowing for both the heterogeneous nature of the grazing resources and expected regional variations in climate changes. Participatory research approaches that incorporate producer knowledge will assist in assessing vulnerability of the grazing industry to clim

Climate change, including changes in the intensity and frequency of extreme events, will challenge traditional intensive livestock farming systems. Warmer and drier conditions are projected for most intensive livestock-producing regions, raising the likelihood and incidence of heat stress in stock. Traditional high energy and water use options for improving the environment of livestock under heat stress conditions are likely to be maladaptive. Low energy and low emission options should be identified and evaluated. Suppliers and consumers in global commodity markets will be affected by climate change and associated issues such as international food security, and governmental policy responses. The costs of inputs required to maintain productivity are likely to increase. Farmers and producers need to have a greater awareness of environmental, economic and social conditions beyond their farm gates than ever before. Livestock enterprises must have the flexibility to rapidly change management systems in response to dynamic environmental, economic and social conditions. Proactive adaptation is about risk management and creating opportunities for prosperity under dynamic and challenging conditions.

The rice industry has been highly successful in increasing water use efficiency over its history, and must continue to do so in adapting to climatic change. Rice farmers will need to consider a wide range of potential farming system changes (new varieties/crops, rotations, water priorities, irrigation methods, farm layouts, use of seasonal climate forecasts in management) to adapt to predicted changes in on-farm climate and water supply over the coming century. Research into the viability of new farming system ideas, in comparison with traditional systems, is urgently needed to allow for future farm planning. Projected declines in irrigation water supply under climate change are likely to have a significant negative impact on Australian rice production due to a total dependence on irrigation. In addition to reduced water supply, water demand may increase in response to greater rates of evapotranspiration during the rice-growing season. However the exact increase on water demand is still unclear due to potential offsets through faster development of the crop and a shorter growth period. The risk of low-temperature damage during the reproductive phase, one of the major historical limitations to rice production, is likely to be reduced under climate change. However, the net impact of increased temperatures and CO2 on rice remains largely un-researched in Australia. There is some scope to adapt existing rice production in an attempt to reduce irrigation demand through reduction in the duration of ponding via operational (direct drilling) and breeding (yield/duration) means, as well as reduction in deep percolation losses through enhanced definition and regulation of rice-suitable soils. Significant improvements in water productivity will be difficult to achieve under existing production systems, and the immediate consequence of less water will be reduced rice production. However aerobic and alternate-wet-and-dry (AWD) rice may present the Australian rice industry with n