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JWST has begun its scientific mission, which includes the atmospheric characterization of transiting exoplanets. Some of the first exoplanets to be observed by JWST have equilibrium temperatures below 1000 K, which is a regime where photochemical hazes are expected to form. The optical properties of these hazes, which controls how they interact with light, are critical for interpreting exoplanet observations, but relevant data are not available. Here we measure the optical properties of organic haze analogues generated in water-rich exoplanet atmosphere experiments. We report optical constants (0.4 to 28.6 micron) of organic hazes for current and future observational and modeling efforts covering the entire wavelength range of JWST instrumentation and a large part of Hubble. We use these optical constants to generate hazy model atmospheric spectra. The synthetic spectra show that differences in haze optical constants have a detectable effect on the spectra, impacting our interpretation of exoplanet observations. This study emphasizes the need to investigate the optical properties of hazes formed in different exoplanet atmospheres, and establishes a practical procedure to determine such properties., Comment: 4 figures, 1 Table, Paper under review in Nature Astronomy

Chemistry in Titan's N2-CH4 atmosphere produces complex organic aerosols. The chemical processes and the resulting organic compounds are still far from understood, although extensive observations, laboratory, and theoretical simulations have greatly improved physical and chemical constraints on Titan's atmosphere. Here, we conduct a series of Titan atmosphere simulation experiments with N2-CH4 gas mixtures and investigate the effect of initial CH4 ratio, pressure, and flow rate on the production rates and composition of the gas and solid products at a Titan relevant temperature (100 K) for the first time. We find that the production rate of the gas and solid products increases with increasing CH4 ratio. The nitrogen-containing species have much higher yield than hydrocarbons in the gas products, and the N-to-C ratio of the solid products appears to be the highest compared to previous plasma simulations with the same CH4 ratio. The greater degree of nitrogen incorporation in the low temperature simulation experiments suggests temperature may play an important role in nitrogen incorporation in Titan's cold atmosphere. We also find that H2 is the dominant gas product and serves as an indicator of the production rate of new organic molecules in the experiment, and that CH2NH may greatly contribute to the incorporation of both carbon and nitrogen into the solid particles. The pressure and flow rate affect the amount of time of the gas mixture exposed to the energy source and therefore impact the N2-CH4 chemistry initiated by the plasma discharge, emphasizing the influence of the energy flux in Titan atmospheric chemistry., Comment: Accepted in ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 6 figures

Titan's thick atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen and methane. Complex chemistry happening in Titan's atmosphere produces optically thick organic hazes. These hazes play significant roles in Titan's atmosphere and on its surface, and their optical properties are crucial for understanding many processes happening on Titan. Due to the lack of such information, the optical constants of laboratory prepared Titan haze analogues are essential inputs for atmospheric modeling and data analysis of remote sensing observations of Titan. Here, we perform laboratory simulations in a Titan relevant environment, analyze the resulting Titan haze analogues using vacuum Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and calculate the optical constants from the measured transmittance and reflectance spectra. We provide a reliable set of optical constants of Titan haze analogue in the wavelength range from 0.4 to 3.5 micron and will extend to 28.5 micron in the near future, which can both be used for analyzing existing and future observational data of Titan. This study establishes a feasible method to determine optical constants of haze analogues of (exo)planetary bodies., Comment: 22 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in The Planetary Science Journal

In Titan's nitrogen-methane atmosphere, photochemistry leads to the production of complex organic particles, forming Titan's thick haze layers. Laboratory-produced aerosol analogs, or "tholins", are produced in a number of laboratories; however, most previous studies have investigated analogs produced by only one laboratory rather than a systematic, comparative analysis. In this study, we performed a comparative study of an important material property, the surface energy, of seven tholin samples produced in three independent laboratories under a broad range of experimental conditions, and explored their commonalities and differences. All seven tholin samples are found to have high surface energies, and are therefore highly cohesive. Thus, if the surface sediments on Titan are similar to tholins, future missions such as Dragonfly will likely encounter sticky sediments. We also identified a commonality between all the tholin samples: a high dispersive (non-polar) surface energy component of at least 30 mJ/m2. This common property could be shared by the actual haze particles on Titan as well. Given that the most abundant species interacting with the haze on Titan (methane, ethane, and nitrogen) are non-polar in nature, the dispersive surface energy component of the haze particles could be a determinant factor in condensate-haze and haze-lake liquids interactions on Titan. With this common trait of tholin samples, we confirmed the findings of a previous study by Yu et al. (2020) that haze particles are likely good cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) for methane and ethane clouds and would likely be completely wetted by the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan., Comment: 20 pages, 5 figures, 6 tables

The majority of exoplanets found to date have been discovered via the transit method, and transmission spectroscopy represents the primary method of studying these distant worlds. Currently, in-depth atmospheric characterization of transiting exoplanets entails the use of spectrographs on large telescopes, requiring significant observing time to study each planet. Previous studies have demonstrated trends for solar system worlds using color-color photometry of reflectance spectra, as well as trends within transmission spectra for hot Jupiters. Building on these concepts, we have investigated the use of transmission color photometric analysis for efficient, coarse categorization of exoplanets and for assessing the nature of these worlds, with a focus on resolving the bulk composition degeneracy to aid in discriminating super-Earths and sub-Neptunes. We present our methodology and first results, including spectrum models, model comparison frameworks, and wave band selection criteria. We present our results for different transmission "color" metrics, filter selection methods, and numbers of filters. Assuming noise-free spectra of isothermal atmospheres in chemical equilibrium, with our pipeline, we are able to constrain atmospheric mean molecular weight in order to distinguish between super-Earth and sub-Neptune atmospheres with >90$\%$ overall accuracy using as few as two specific low-resolution filter combinations. We also found that increasing the number of filters does not substantially impact this performance. This method could allow for broad characterization of large numbers of planets much more efficiently than current methods permit, enabling population and system-level studies. Additionally, data collected via this method could inform follow-up observing time by large telescopes for more detailed studies of worlds of interest.

Thanks to the Cassini-Huygens mission, Titan, the pale orange dot of Pioneer and Voyager encounters has been revealed to be a dynamic, hydrologically-shaped, organic-rich ocean world offering unparalleled opportunities to explore prebiotic chemistry. And while Cassini-Huygens revolutionized our understanding of each of the three layers of Titan--the atmosphere, the surface, and the interior--we are only beginning to hypothesize how these realms interact. In this paper, we summarize the current state of Titan knowledge and discuss how future exploration of Titan would address some of the next decade's most compelling planetary science questions. We also demonstrate why exploring Titan, both with and beyond the Dragonfly New Frontiers mission, is a necessary and complementary component of an Ocean Worlds Program that seeks to understand whether habitable environments exist elsewhere in our solar system., Comment: Submitted to the PSJ Focus Issue on Ocean World Exploration

From orbit, the visibility of Titan's surface is limited to a handful of narrow spectral windows in the near-infrared (near-IR), primarily from the absorption of methane gas. This has limited the ability to identify specific compounds on the surface -- to date Titan's bulk surface composition remains unknown. Further, understanding of the surface composition would provide insight into geologic processes, photochemical production and evolution, and the biological potential of Titan's surface. One approach to obtain wider spectral coverage with which to study Titan's surface is by decreasing the integrated column of absorbers (primarily methane) and scatterers between the observer and the surface. This is only possible if future missions operate at lower altitudes in Titan's atmosphere. Herein, we use a radiative transfer model to measure in detail the absorption through Titan's atmosphere from different mission altitudes, and consider the impacts this would have for interpreting reflectance measurements of Titan's surface. Over our modeled spectral range of 0.4 - 10 micron, we find that increases in the width of the transmission windows as large as 317% can be obtained for missions performing remote observations at the surface. However, any appreciable widening of the windows requires onboard illumination. Further, we make note of possible surface compounds that are not currently observable from orbit, but could be identified using the wider windows at low altitudes. These range from simple nitriles such as cyanoacetylene, to building blocks of amino acids such as urea. Finally, we discuss the implications that the identifications of these compounds would have for Titan science., Comment: 52 pages, 6 figures, Icarus 2020

The photochemical haze produced in the upper atmosphere of Titan plays a key role in various atmospheric and surface processes on Titan. The surface energy, one important physical properties of the haze, is crucial for understanding the growth of the haze particles and can be used to predict their wetting behavior with solid and liquid species on Titan. We produced Titan analog haze materials, so-called "tholin", with different energy sources and measured their surface energies through contact angle and direct force measurements. From the contact angle measurement, we found that the tholins produced by cold plasma and UV irradiation have total surface energy around 60-70 mJ/m2. The direct force measurement yields a total surface energy of ~66 mJ/m2 for plasma tholin. The surface energy of tholin is relatively high compared to common polymers, indicating its high cohesiveness. Therefore, the Titan haze particles would likely coagulate easily to form bigger particles, while the haze-derived surface sand particles would need higher wind speed to be mobilized because of the high interparticle cohesion. The high surface energy of tholins also makes them easily wettable by Titan's atmospheric hydrocarbon condensates and surface liquids. Thus, the hazes particles are likely good cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) for hydrocarbon clouds (methane and ethane) to nucleate and grow. And if the hazes particles are denser compared to the lake liquids, they would likely sink into the lakes instead of forming a floating film to dampen the lake surface waves., Comment: 27 pages, 6 figures

New observing capabilities coming online over the next few years will provide opportunities for characterization of exoplanet atmospheres. However, clouds/hazes could be present in the atmospheres of many exoplanets, muting the amplitude of spectral features. We use laboratory simulations to explore photochemical haze formation in H2-rich exoplanet atmospheres at 800 K with metallicity either 100 and 1000 times solar. We find that haze particles are produced in both simulated atmospheres with small particle size (20 to 140 nm) and relative low production rate (2.4 x 10-5 to 9.7 x 10-5 mg cm-3 h-1), but the particle size and production rate is dependent on the initial gas mixtures and the energy sources used in the simulation experiments. The gas phase mass spectra show that complex chemical processes happen in these atmospheres and generate new gas products that can further react to form larger molecules and solid haze particles. Two H2-rich atmospheres with similar C/O ratios (~0.5) yield different haze particles size, haze production rate, and gas products, suggesting both the elemental abundances and their bonding environments in an atmosphere can significantly affect the photochemistry. There is no methane (CH4) in our initial gas mixtures, although CH4 is often believed to be required to generate organic hazes. However, haze production rates from our experiments with different initial gas mixtures indicate that CH4 is neither required to generate organic hazes nor necessary to promote the organic haze formation. The variety and relative yield of the gas products indicate that CO and N2 enrich chemical reactions in H2-rich atmospheres., Comment: Accepted in The Planetary Science Journal; 21 pages, 5 figures, 1 table

Sulfur gases significantly affect the photochemistry of planetary atmospheres in our Solar System, and are expected to be important components in exoplanet atmospheres. However, sulfur photochemistry in the context of exoplanets is poorly understood due to a lack of chemical-kinetics information for sulfur species under relevant conditions. Here, we study the photochemical role of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in warm CO2-rich exoplanet atmospheres (800 K) by carrying out laboratory simulations. We find that H2S plays a significant role in photochemistry, even when present in the atmosphere at relatively low concentrations (1.6%). It participates in both gas and solid phase chemistry, leading to the formation of other sulfur gas products (CH3SH/SO, C2H4S/OCS, SO2/S2, and CS2) and to an increase in solid haze particle production and compositional complexity. Our study shows that we may expect thicker haze with small particle sizes (20 to 140 nm) for warm CO2-rich exoplanet atmospheres that possess H2S.

Sand electrification is important for aeolian sediment transportation on terrestrial bodies with silicate sand as the main sediment composition. However, it has not been thoroughly studied for icy bodies such as Titan with organic sand as the main dune-forming material. We used the colloidal probe atomic force microscopy (AFM) technique to study triboelectric charging processes using Titan and Earth sand analogs. We found that it is easy to generate triboelectric charges between naphthalene (a simple aromatic hydrocarbon), polystyrene (an aromatic hydrocarbon polymer), and borosilicate glass (Earth silicate sand analog). Strong electrostatic forces can be measured after contact and/or tribocharging. In contrast, tholin, a complex organic material, does not generate any detectable electrostatic forces with contact or tribocharging within the detection limit of the instrument. If Titan sand behaves more like tholin, this indicates that the tribocharging capacity of Titan sand is much weaker than Earth silicate sand and much less than previously measured by Mendez-Harper et al., (2017), where only simple organics were used for Titan sand analogs. Thus, triboelectrification may not contribute to increasing interparticle forces between sand particles on Titan as much as on Earth. Interparticle forces generated by other electrostatic processes or other interparticle forces such as van der Waals and capillary cohesion forces could be the dominant interparticle forces that govern Titan sand formation and sediment transportation on the surface. Titan sand is also unlikely to produce large electrical discharge through tribocharging to affect future missions to Titan's surface., Comment: 25 pages, 5 figures

We are now on a clear trajectory for improvements in exoplanet observations that will revolutionize our ability to characterize their atmospheric structure, composition, and circulation, from gas giants to rocky planets. However, exoplanet atmospheric models capable of interpreting the upcoming observations are often limited by insufficiencies in the laboratory and theoretical data that serve as critical inputs to atmospheric physical and chemical tools. Here we provide an up-to-date and condensed description of areas where laboratory and/or ab initio investigations could fill critical gaps in our ability to model exoplanet atmospheric opacities, clouds, and chemistry, building off a larger 2016 white paper, and endorsed by the NAS Exoplanet Science Strategy report. Now is the ideal time for progress in these areas, but this progress requires better access to, understanding of, and training in the production of spectroscopic data as well as a better insight into chemical reaction kinetics both thermal and radiation-induced at a broad range of temperatures. Given that most published efforts have emphasized relatively Earth-like conditions, we can expect significant and enlightening discoveries as emphasis moves to the exotic atmospheres of exoplanets., Comment: Submitted as an Astro2020 Science White Paper

UV radiation can induce photochemical processes in exoplanet atmospheres and produce haze particles. Recent observations suggest that haze and/or cloud layers could be present in the upper atmospheres of exoplanets. Haze particles play an important role in planetary atmospheres and may provide a source of organic material to the surface which may impact the origin or evolution of life. However, very little information is known about photochemical processes in cool, high-metallicity exoplanetary atmospheres. Previously, we investigated haze formation and particle size distribution in laboratory atmosphere simulation experiments using AC plasma as the energy source. Here, we use UV photons to initiate the chemistry rather than the AC plasma, since photochemistry driven by UV radiation is important for understanding exoplanet atmospheres. We present photochemical haze formation in current UV experiments, we investigated a range of atmospheric metallicities (100x, 1000x, and 10000x solar metallicity) at three temperatures (300 K, 400 K, and 600 K). We find that photochemical hazes are generated in all simulated atmospheres with temperature-dependent production rates: the particles produced in each metallicity group decrease as the temperature increases. The images taken with atomic force microscopy show the particle size (15-190 nm) varies with temperature and metallicity. Our laboratory experimental results provide new insight into the formation and properties of photochemical haze, which could guide exoplanet atmosphere modeling and help to analyze and interpret current and future observations of exoplanets., Comment: 18 pages, 4 figures, 1 table, Accepted on The Astronomical Journal

Super-Earths and mini-Neptunes are the most abundant types of planets among the ~3500 confirmed exoplanets, and are expected to exhibit a wide variety of atmospheric compositions. Recent transmission spectra of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes have demonstrated the possibility that exoplanets have haze/cloud layers at high altitudes in their atmospheres. However, the compositions, size distributions, and optical properties of these particles in exoplanet atmospheres are poorly understood. Here, we present the results of experimental laboratory investigations of photochemical haze formation within a range of planetary atmospheric conditions, as well as observations of the color and size of produced haze particles. We find that atmospheric temperature and metallicity strongly affect particle color and size, thus altering the particles' optical properties (e.g., absorptivity, scattering, etc.); on a larger scale, this affects the atmospheric and surface temperature of the exoplanets, and their potential habitability. Our results provide constraints on haze formation and particle properties that can serve as critical inputs for exoplanet atmosphere modeling, and guide future observations of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes with the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), and the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST)., Comment: 19 pages, 4 figures and 1 table

Prior to the arrival of Cassini-Huygens, aerosol production in Titan's atmosphere was believed to begin in the stratosphere where chemical processes are predominantly initiated by FUV radiation. However, measurements taken by Cassini UVIS and CAPS indicate that haze formation initiates in the thermosphere where there is a greater flux of EUV photons and energetic particles available to initiate chemical reactions, including the destruction of N2. The discovery of previously unpredicted nitrogen species in Titan's atmosphere by Cassini INMS indicates that nitrogen participates in the chemistry to a much greater extent than was appreciated before Cassini. The degree of nitrogen in the haze is important for understanding the diversity of molecules present in Titan's atmosphere and on its surface. We have conducted a series of simulation experiments using either spark discharge or FUV photons to initiate chemistry in CH4/N2 gas mixtures (0.01% CH4/99.99% N2 to 10% CH4/90% N2). We obtained in situ real-time measurements using an HR-ToF-AMS to measure the particle composition as a function of particle size and a PIT-MS to measure the composition of gas phase products. These two techniques allow us to investigate the effect of energy source and initial CH4 concentration on the degree of nitrogen incorporation in both the gas and solid phase products. The results presented here confirm that FUV photons produce not only solid phase nitrogen bearing products but also gas phase nitrogen species. We find that in both the gas and solid phase, nitrogen is found in nitriles rather than amines and both the gas phase and solid phase products are composed primarily of molecules with a low degree of aromaticity. The UV experiments reproduce the absolute abundances measured in Titan's stratosphere for a number of gas phase species including C4H2, C6H6, HCN, CH3CN, HC3N, and C2H5CN. [Edited for length], Comment: 55 pages, 18 figures, 4 tables, Accepted in Icarus

CO is an important component in many N2/CH4 atmospheres including Titan, Triton, and Pluto, and has also been detected in the atmosphere of a number of exoplanets. Numerous experimental simulations have been carried out in the laboratory to understand the chemistry in N2/CH4 atmospheres, but very few simulations have included CO in the initial gas mixtures. The effect of CO on the chemistry occurring in these atmospheres is still poorly understood. We have investigated the effect of CO on both gas and solid phase chemistry in a series of planetary atmosphere simulation experiments using gas mixtures of CO, CH4, and N2 with a range of CO mixing ratios from 0.05% to 5% at low temperature (~100 K). We find that CO affects the gas phase chemistry, the density, and the composition of the solids. Specifically, with the increase of CO in the initial gases, there is less H2 but more H2O, HCN, C2H5N/HCNO and CO2 produced in the gas phase, while the density, oxygen content, and degree of unsaturation of the solids increase. The results indicate that CO has an important impact on the chemistry occurring in our experiments and accordingly in planetary atmospheres., Comment: 5 figures. Accepted in Astrophysical Journal Letters

The organic haze produced from complex CH4/N2 chemistry in the atmosphere of Titan plays an important role in processes that occur in the atmosphere and on its surface. The haze particles act as condensation nuclei and are therefore involved in Titan's methane hydrological cycle. They also may behave like sediment on Titan's surface and participate in both fluvial and aeolian processes. Models that seek to understand these processes require information about the physical properties of the particles including their size and density. Although measurements obtained by Cassini-Huygens have placed constraints on the size of the haze particles, their densities remain unknown. We have conducted a series of Titan atmosphere simulation experiments and measured the size, number density, and particle density of Titan aerosol analogues, or tholins, for CH4 concentrations from 0.01% to 10% using two different energy sources, spark discharge and UV. We find that the densities currently in use by many Titan models are higher than the measured densities of our tholins., Comment: 21 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables. Accepted in Astrophysical Journal Letters

We have searched for the presence of simple P and S-bearing molecules in Titan's atmosphere, by looking for the characteristic signatures of phosphine and hydrogen sulfide in infrared spectra obtained by Cassini CIRS. As a result we have placed the first upper limits on the stratospheric abundances, which are 1 ppb (PH3) and 330 ppb (H2S), at the 2-sigma significance level., Comment: 12 pages text, 1 table, 2 figures

Europa's tenuous atmosphere results from sputtering of the surface. The trace element composition of its atmosphere is therefore related to the composition of Europa's surface. Magnesium salts are often invoked to explain Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer spectra of Europa's surface, thus magnesium may be present in Europa's atmosphere. We have searched for magnesium emission in Hubble Space Telescope Faint Object Spectrograph archival spectra of Europa's atmosphere. Magnesium was not detected and we calculate an upper limit on the magnesium column abundance. This upper limit indicates that either Europa's surface is depleted in magnesium relative to sodium and potassium, or magnesium is not sputtered as efficiently resulting in a relative depletion in its atmosphere., Comment: 17 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables