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This article examines the growing influence of Informational Communication Technologies (ICTs) in less certain refugee contexts and the role of civil society groups. Drawing on an empirical case study of Somali refugees in Kenya, the article explores the grassroots use of ICTs by refugee women and local socio-economic dynamics in processes of inclusion. Adopting a micro-institutional perspective, the discussion looks at the emerging influence of mobile technology on refugee women’s precarious norms related to mobility and work, and the evolution of new digital norms. The article highlights the strategic role of women’s groups and proactive group members as ‘institutional entrepreneurs’, in aiding levels of ICT adoption among group members, motivated by connection, protection and collective enterprise, with potential effects far beyond the group. In a transitory and fragile refugee context however, constraints on civil society may lead to the exclusion of more isolated populations without formal institutional support.

Advancing earlier studies in Afghanistan and Kenya, the research discussed in this case study sought to further investigate gender and enterprise in “fragile settings”—where the state is weak, absent, or unwilling. The research case specifically explored Syrian refugee women’s evolving economic lives, and related socio-cultural dynamics in the context of Jordan. Adopting an “institutionalist” perspective, the research looked at the precarious nature of emerging social and economic practices—including women’s increased public mobility, and new work norms in enterprise. The empirical study drew on an “exploratory” in-depth case study approach, critical realism, to examine “less known social phenomena” in institutional change and the interplay between structure and agency. Such an approach may permit an exploration of different realities, but it necessitates a self-reflective and self-aware researcher, with flexibility to guide and reshape the investigation as necessary. At a grassroots level, the article expounds on the ethnographic tools employed and the value of such tools in less formal settings. Yet, the case study draws attention to three potential levels of bias that may influence the research process and outcomes, including the researcher, the research respondents, and the research process. A recognition and awareness of these biases may be of particular importance in open and iterative critical realist research that aims to explore the “social world,” and build an understanding of “reality” over the course of the research.

Summary This paper elaborates on critical processes of institutional change and the implications for local economic development in fragile settings. Drawing on empirical research in Afghanistan, the discussion looks specifically at how local actors interact to reshape the “rules of the game” in women’s enterprise. The research has highlighted diverse actor negotiation in the transformation of (heterogeneous) purdah norms and development of enterprise institutions. This has crucially influenced the scope of norm development, and women’s engagement in business. The study shows that external actors (such as NGOs) may be able to both initiate and guide institutional change and development. Yet in challenging environments such as Afghanistan, there may be limitations to their endeavors, with strong resistance from local power holders, unpredictable entrepreneurs and disruptive (local) events. The use of liberal cultural/religious narratives has proved fundamental in permitting change processes. Emerging open-minded beliefs have unleashed a more democratic “narrative” on women, particularly if championed by progressive leaders, or credible outsiders in “receptive” local conditions. This has led to the evolution of new attitudes and preferences, with potential effects beyond the market, including increasing girls’ education and women’s property rights. The research has generated a micro-social perspective of institutional change, identifying key actors and conditions that may shape grassroots institutional processes in enterprise development. In emerging outcomes, the paper presents insights into the role of dominant entrepreneurs in driving (nested) institutional pathways. This may promote inclusive opportunities for (new) power and wealth through open institutions, in “productive institutional pathways.” Yet it can equally foster distorted economies if exclusive institutions are allowed to prevail in more “destructive institutional pathways.” To further develop micro-institutional theory, the paper argues for a greater appreciation of culture, religion, and fragility.

This paper examines gender and enterprise in fragile refugee settings. Building on previous research in Afghanistan, it analyses refugee women's evolving economic lives and enterprise initiatives and related social dynamics in refugee communities. Case studies look specifically at two Islamic refugee contexts: Nairobi, Kenya (Somali refugees), and Irbid and Zarqa, Jordan (Syrian refugees). The discussion spotlights the precarious nature of refugee women's new practices and work norms under forced and strained circumstances, without a process of negotiation with male family members. In the case of longer-term refugees (Somalis), it describes new collective agency among refugee women, boosting support for new practices. The paper reflects on emerging gender roles and relations in such hostile conditions, particularly as men remain excluded and struggle for their own identity and authority. In addition, it draws attention to the gap relating to refugee men and policymaking, and highlights ways to address better their needs for refugee resilience, inclusion, and local integration.

This chapter explores how poor women in a conservative and unstable context strive to overcome cultural barriers to engage in business and markets. It focuses on the transformation of women's 'purdah' norms – manifested by veiling and women's mobility outside of the home – permitting the start of women's community-based enterprises in the turbulent context of Afghanistan. The chapter expands upon the discourse of social norms, focusing particular attention to religious influences and change, to understand trends of inclusion and exclusion in women's fragile economic development. It presents some of the main research findings, highlighting the gradual process of transformation of purdah in selected women's enterprises, and the varying roles of key actors and the influence of the local context. The chapter also focuses on through the prism of social norms to explore streams of cultural change and economic development at the micro-level in the challenging context of Afghanistan, with macro-level implications.

This chapter explores the fundamental question of how institutions change in fragile environments, going beyond the assumed tabula rasa in neo-institutional theory towards appreciating more nuanced outcomes, and their influence on economic development. In the market arena, there are powerful institutions that define who participates and the scope of that actor interaction. Drawing on Chang (2002), empirical research has sought to appreciate the causal structures and dynamics within firms and in the local environment, departing from the conventional focus on the power between firms and profit distribution. Using a case-study approach, research specifically examined the development of institutions (or ‘rules’) in women’s enterprises in Afghanistan through the lens of a critical social institution, women’s purdah (Ritchie 2013). Manifested by segregation, seclusion, modesty, and coveredness, the traditional practice of purdah determines the scope of women’s mobility and social interaction (due to the pressure to avoid being seen by non-family men), and shapes all potential aspects of their social and economic lives (Doubleday 2006). In the transformation of purdah, and subsequent formulation of enterprise institutions, the research indicates the embedded nature of rule development, and the interaction of diverse actors. These actors influence both the process and nature of emerging rules — including degrees of openness and flexibility — shedding new light on the institutional change process.