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An outbreak of disease in a Swedish beef cattle herd initiated an in-depth study to investigate the presence of bacteria and viruses in the blood of clinically healthy (n = 10) and clinically diseased cattle (n = 20) using whole-genome shotgun sequencing (WGSS). The occurrence of infectious agents was also investigated in ticks found attached to healthy cattle (n = 61) and wild deer (n = 23), and in spleen samples from wild deer (n = 30) and wild boars (n = 10). Moreover, blood samples from 84 clinically healthy young stock were analysed for antibodies against Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens. The WGSS revealed the presence of at least three distinct Mycoplasma variants that were most closely related to Mycoplasma wenyonii. Two of these were very similar to a divergent M. wenyonii variant previously only detected in Mexico. These variants tended to be more common in the diseased cattle than in the healthy cattle but were not detected in the ticks or wild animals. The DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in similar proportions in diseased (33%) and healthy (40%) cattle, while 70% of the deer, 8% of ticks collected from the cattle and 19% of the ticks collected from deer were positive. Almost all the isolates from the cattle, deer and ticks belonged to Ecotype 1. Based on sequencing of the groEL-gene, most isolates of A. phagocytophilum from cattle were similar and belonged to a different cluster than the isolates from wild deer. Antibodies against A. phagocytophilum were detected in all the analysed samples. In conclusion, uncommon variants of Mycoplasma were detected, probably associated with the disease outbreak in combination with immune suppression due to granulocytic anaplasmosis. Moreover, A. phagocytophilum was found to be circulating within this cattle population, while circulation between cattle and deer occurred infrequently.

Following findings in Northern America of SARS-CoV-2 infections in white-tailed deer, there is concern of similar infections in European deer and their potential as reservoirs of SARS-CoV-2 including opportunities for the emergence of new variants. UK deer sera were collected in 2020-2021 from 6 species and a hybrid with 1748 tested using anti-spike and anti-nucleocapsid serology assays. No samples were positive on both assays nor by surrogate neutralization testing. There is no evidence that spill-over infections of SARS-CoV-2 occurred from the human population to UK deer or that SARS-CoV-2 has been circulating in UK deer (over the study period). Although it cannot be ruled out, study results indicate that spill-over infections followed by circulation of SARS-CoV-2 to the most common European deer species is small.

The presence of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was detected in a questing tick pool in southern England in September 2019. Hitherto, TBEV had only been detected in a limited area in eastern England. This southern English viral genome sequence is distinct from TBEV-UK, being most similar to TBEV-NL. The new location of TBEV presence highlights that the diagnosis of tick-borne encephalitis should be considered in encephalitic patients in areas of the United Kingdom outside eastern England.

The United Kingdom (UK) has thus far been considered to be free from tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), yet in July 2019, a German infant developed serologically diagnosed TBE following a tick bite in southern England. This first report of a probable human case together with recent findings of TBE virus in ticks in foci in England suggest that TBE may be acquired in parts of England and should be considered in patients with aetiologically-unexplained neurological manifestations.

IntroductionIn response to the 2013-2016 West African outbreak of the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), Public Health England introduced enhanced screening at major United Kingdom (UK) ports of entry. Our aim was to explore screeners’ and screened travellers’ perceptions of screening as part of an evaluation of the screening programme. MethodsWe undertook qualitative focus groups and semi-structured interviews with screeners and travellers who had returned from affected countries before and after the introduction of screening in England. The study was conducted in two airports, one international rail terminal and one military airport. Research topic guides explored perceptions of the purpose and implementation of the process, potential improvements, and reactions to screening. The data were analysed using the Framework method.ResultsTwenty-four screeners participated in four focus groups (one for each port of entry) and 23 travellers participated in interviews. Three themes are presented: ‘Context’, ‘Screeners’ experience of the programme’ and ‘Screening purpose and experiences’. The programme was implemented rapidly, refined over time and adapted to individual ports. Screeners reported diverse experiences of screening including negative impacts on their normal roles, difficult interactions with passengers and pressure to identify positive EVD cases. Screening was considered unlikely to identify individuals with symptoms of EVD, and some participants suggested it was driven by political concerns rather than empirical evidence. The screening process was valued for its provision of information and reassurance. ConclusionThis qualitative study found that the UK EVD screening process was perceived to be acceptable to assess individual risk and provide information and advice to travellers. Future programmes should have clear objectives and streamlined processes to minimise disruption, tailored to the nature of the threat and developed with the needs of humanitarian workers as well as general travellers in mind.

Louping ill virus (LIV), a member of the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) serocomplex, had been the only known zoonotic tick-borne flavivirus endemic to the UK. LIV is closely related to and serologically reacts with TBEV, which is much more pathogenic to humans; causing around 3,000 cases in the European region annually. TBEV is endemic across much of Europe, where it is increasing in range, but was thought to be absent from the UK. It is important to understand the potential for TBEV to be emerging in the UK undetected. A large-scale sentinel deer serosurveillance study was conducted to identify regions of exposure to TBEV-serocomplex pathogens. Serum samples were tested for specific antibodies to TBEV as a measure to indicate exposure. In addition, submitted tick samples removed from deer, close to an ELISA positive sample, were tested for TBEV and LIV RNA by RT-PCR. Overall, 4% of samples were ELISA-positive for the TBEV serocomplex. The Thetford Forest area in England had both the highest proportion (47.7%) of seropositive samples, and importantly no previous reports of LIV infection in livestock which could cross-react with the TBEV serology assays. Of 2,041 tested ticks from areas near seropositive deer, five were positive by TBEV/LIV RT-PCR, all within the Thetford Forest area. From 1 tick, a full-length genomic sequence of TBEV-Eu was identified. A two-year extensive ecological study collecting questing ticks was conducted in sites associated with high rates of exposure to TBEV-serocomplex virus. A total of 7,085 questing ticks were collected in Thetford Forest, with TBEV being detected in 6 sites out of 24 sites surveyed over 2018 and 2019. In addition, 3,205 questing ticks were collected and tested from 7 sites in the New Forest and bordering areas, resulting in the detection of TBEV in one site on the Hampshire/Dorset border. These results demonstrate that TBEV has been detected in the UK for the first time - in two geographically distinct locations 200 miles apart. High seropositivity and presence in questing ticks suggests it is being maintained in enzootic cycles in these areas. This finding is of public health significance and requires rapid dissemination of findings to health professionals in the UK.