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In this study, we propose the use of virtual urban field studies (VUFS) through context-based interface prototypes for evaluating the interaction design of auditory interfaces. Virtual field tests use mixed-reality technologies to combine the fidelity of real-world testing with the affordability and speed of testing in the lab. In this paper, we apply this concept to rapidly test sound designs for autonomous vehicle (AV)--pedestrian interaction with a high degree of realism and fidelity. We also propose the use of psychometrically validated measures of presence in validating the verisimilitude of VUFS. Using mixed qualitative and quantitative methods, we analysed users' perceptions of presence in our VUFS prototype and the relationship to our prototype's effectiveness. We also examined the use of higher-order ambisonic spatialised audio and its impact on presence. Our results provide insights into how VUFS can be designed to facilitate presence as well as design guidelines for how this can be leveraged.

In this article, we report on the design and evaluation of an external human-machine interface (eHMI) for a real autonomous vehicle (AV), developed to operate as a shared transport pod in a pedestrianized urban space. We present insights about our human-centered design process, which included testing initial concepts through a tangible toolkit and evaluating 360-degree recordings of a staged pick-up scenario in virtual reality. Our results indicate that in complex mobility scenarios, participants filter for critical eHMI messages; further, we found that implicit cues (i.e., pick-up manoeuvre and proximity to the rider) influence participants' experience and trust, while at the same time more explicit interaction modes are desired. This highlights the importance of considering interactions with shared AVs as a service more holistically, in order to develop knowledge about AV-pedestrian interactions in complex mobility scenarios that complements more targeted eHMI evaluations.

In this position paper, we present a collection of four different prototyping approaches which we have developed and applied to prototype and evaluate interfaces for and interactions around autonomous physical systems. Further, we provide a classification of our approaches aiming to support other researchers and designers in choosing appropriate prototyping platforms and representations.

The rise of autonomous systems in cities, such as automated vehicles (AVs), requires new approaches for prototyping and evaluating how people interact with those systems through context-based user interfaces, such as external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs). In this paper, we present a comparative study of three prototype representations (real-world VR, computer-generated VR, real-world video) of an eHMI in a mixed-methods study with 42 participants. Quantitative results show that while the real-world VR representation results in higher sense of presence, no significant differences in user experience and trust towards the AV itself were found. However, interview data shows that participants focused on different experiential and perceptual aspects in each of the prototype representations. These differences are linked to spatial awareness and perceived realism of the AV behaviour and its context, affecting in turn how participants assess trust and the eHMI. The paper offers guidelines for prototyping and evaluating context-based interfaces through simulations.

Robots in urban environments will inevitably encounter situations beyond their capabilities (e.g., delivery robots unable to press traffic light buttons), necessitating bystander assistance. These spontaneous collaborations possess challenges distinct from traditional human-robot collaboration, requiring design investigation and tailored interaction strategies. This study investigates playful help-seeking as a strategy to encourage such bystander assistance. We compared our designed playful help-seeking concepts against two existing robot help-seeking strategies: verbal speech and emotional expression. To assess these strategies and their impact on bystanders' experience and attitudes towards urban robots, we conducted a virtual reality evaluation study with 24 participants. Playful help-seeking enhanced people's willingness to help robots, a tendency more pronounced in scenarios requiring greater physical effort. Verbal help-seeking was perceived less polite, raising stronger discomfort assessments. Emotional expression help-seeking elicited empathy while leading to lower cognitive trust. The triangulation of quantitative and qualitative results highlights considerations for robot help-seeking from bystanders.

Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) for automated vehicles (AVs) are typically divided into two categories: internal HMIs for interactions within the vehicle, and external HMIs for communication with other road users. In this work, we examine the prospects of bridging these two seemingly distinct domains. Through a participatory workshop with automotive user interface researchers and practitioners, we facilitated a critical exploration of holistic HMI design by having workshop participants collaboratively develop interaction scenarios involving AVs, in-vehicle users, and external road users. The discussion offers insights into the escalation of interface elements as an HMI design strategy, the direct interactions between different users, and an expanded understanding of holistic HMI design. This work reflects a collaborative effort to understand the practical aspects of this holistic design approach, offering new perspectives and encouraging further investigation into this underexplored aspect of automotive user interfaces.

As the field of automated vehicles (AVs) advances, it has become increasingly critical to develop human-machine interfaces (HMI) for both internal and external communication. Critical dialogue is emerging around the potential necessity for a holistic approach to HMI designs, which promotes the integration of both in-vehicle user and external road user perspectives. This approach aims to create a unified and coherent experience for different stakeholders interacting with AVs. This workshop seeks to bring together designers, engineers, researchers, and other stakeholders to delve into relevant use cases, exploring the potential advantages and challenges of this approach. The insights generated from this workshop aim to inform further design and research in the development of coherent HMIs for AVs, ultimately for more seamless integration of AVs into existing traffic.

Augmented reality (AR) has the potential to fundamentally change how people engage with increasingly interactive urban environments. However, many challenges exist in designing and evaluating these new urban AR experiences, such as technical constraints and safety concerns associated with outdoor AR. We contribute to this domain by assessing the use of virtual reality (VR) for simulating wearable urban AR experiences, allowing participants to interact with future AR interfaces in a realistic, safe and controlled setting. This paper describes two wearable urban AR applications (pedestrian navigation and autonomous mobility) simulated in VR. Based on a thematic analysis of interview data collected across the two studies, we found that the VR simulation successfully elicited feedback on the functional benefits of AR concepts and the potential impact of urban contextual factors, such as safety concerns, attentional capacity, and social considerations. At the same time, we highlighted the limitations of this approach in terms of assessing the AR interface's visual quality and providing exhaustive contextual information. The paper concludes with recommendations for simulating wearable urban AR experiences in VR.

Recent studies have investigated new approaches for communicating an autonomous vehicle's (AV) intent and awareness to pedestrians. This paper adds to this body of work by presenting the design and evaluation of in-situ projections on the road. Our design combines common traffic light patterns with aesthetic visual elements. We describe the iterative design process and the prototyping methods used in each stage. The final design concept was represented as a virtual reality simulation and evaluated with 18 participants in four different street crossing scenarios, which included three scenarios that simulated various degrees of system errors. We found that different design elements were able to support participants' confidence in their decision even when the AV failed to correctly detect their presence. We also identified elements in our design that needed to be more clearly communicated. Based on these findings, the paper presents a series of design recommendations for projection-based communication between AVs and pedestrians.

Technological progress paves the way to ever-increasing opportunities for automating city services. This spans from already existing concepts, such as automated shuttles at airports, to more speculative applications, such as fully autonomous delivery robots. As these services are being automated, it is critical that this process is underpinned by a human-centred perspective. This chapter provides a framework for future research and practice in this emerging domain. It draws on research from the field of human-computer interaction and introduces a number of methodologies that can be used to structure the process of designing interactions between people and automated urban applications. Based on research case studies, the chapter discusses specific elements that need to be considered when designing human-machine interactions in an urban environment. The chapter further proposes a model for designing automated urban applications and a set of principles to guide their prototyping and deployment.

As intelligent agents transition from controlled to uncontrolled environments, they face challenges that sometimes exceed their operational capabilities. In many scenarios, they rely on assistance from bystanders to overcome those challenges. Using robots that get stuck in urban settings as an example, we investigate how agents can prompt bystanders into providing assistance. We conducted four focus group sessions with 17 participants that involved bodystorming, where participants assumed the role of robots and bystander pedestrians in role-playing activities. Generating insights from both assumed robot and bystander perspectives, we were able to identify potential non-verbal help-seeking strategies (i.e., addressing bystanders, cueing intentions, and displaying emotions) and factors shaping the assistive behaviours of bystanders. Drawing on these findings, we offer design considerations for help-seeking urban robots and other agents operating in uncontrolled environments to foster casual collaboration, encompass expressiveness, align with agent social categories, and curate appropriate incentives.