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Vibrational spectroscopic techniques, namely Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, are based on the study of molecular vibrations, and they are complementary techniques to each other. This review provides an overview of the vibrational spectroscopic techniques applied in microbiology during the past decade. In addition, future applications of the elaborated spectroscopic techniques will be highlighted. The results of this review show that both FTIR and Raman spectroscopy are promising alternatives to conventional diagnostic approaches because they provide label-free and noninvasive bacterial detection, identification, and antibiotic susceptibility testing in a single step. Cost-effective, accurate, and rapid tests are needed in order to improve diagnostics and patient care, to decrease the use of unnecessary antimicrobial agents, to prevent resistant microbials, and to decrease the overall burden of outbreaks. Prior to that, however, the presented approaches need to be validated in a clinical workflow against the conventional diagnostic approaches.

Objective: Oxidized epitopes such as malondialdehyde–acetaldehyde (MAA) play a crucial role in the progression of atherosclerosis through activation of the humoral immune response. The exact mechanism of the association between atherosclerosis and periodontal diseases is not fully understood. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the association of oral humoral immune response to oxidized epitopes with parameters of periodontal disease. Materials and methods: The Parogene cohort consist of patients who have undergone coronary angiography due to cardiac symptoms. In this study, 423 patients were randomly selected for an extensive oral examination. Salivary Immunoglobulin A to oxidized epitopes and bacterial antigens was determined by chemiluminescence immunoassay. Results: In a binary logistic regression model adjusted with periodontal disease confounders, periodontal pocket depth (PPD) 4–5 mm associated with salivary IgA antibodies to MAA-LDL (p = 0.034), heat shock protein 60 of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (p = 0.045), Porphyromonas gingivalis (p = 0.045), A. actinomycetemcomitans (p = 0.005), P. intermedia (p = 0.020), and total IgA (p = 0.003). Conclusions: The current study shows the association of salivary IgA to MAA-LDL with PPD 4–5 mm in a cohort of patients with chronic coronary artery disease. Humoral immune cross-reactivation to oxidized epitopes such MAA-LDL could partly explain the link of periodontitis with systemic diseases.

Obesity is associated with low-grade inflammation and increased systemic oxidative stress. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is known to ameliorate the obesity-induced metabolic dysfunctions. We aimed to study the levels of natural antibodies in feces, before and 6 months after RYGB surgery in obese individuals with and without type 2 diabetes (T2D). Sixteen individuals with T2D and 14 non-diabetic (ND) individuals were operated. Total IgA, IgG and IgM antibody levels and specific antibodies to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde adducts (MAA adducts), Porphyromonas gingivalis gingipain A hemagglutinin domain (Rgp44) and phosphocholine (PCho) were measured using chemiluminescence immunoassay. Total fecal IgA was elevated, while total IgM and IgG were not affected by the surgery. Fecal natural IgM specific to oxLDL decreased significantly in both T2D and ND individuals, while fecal IgM to Rgp44 and PCho decreased significantly in T2D individuals. A decrease in IgG to MAA-LDL, Rgp44 and PCho was detected. RYGB surgery increases the levels of total fecal IgA and decreases fecal natural IgG and IgM antibodies specific to oxLDL. Natural antibodies and IgA are important in maintaining the normal gut homeostasis and first-line defense against microbes, and their production is markedly altered with RYGB surgery.

Atherosclerosis is regarded as a chronic inflammatory disease where infections with various bacteria or viruses contribute to the disease development. LDL (low-density lipoprotein) oxidization is the first key step in the progression of atherosclerosis. Lipid oxidation produces adducts, such as malondialdehyde acetaldehyde (MAA), which are highly immunogenic and promote atherosclerosis. This thesis investigates the cross-reactivity of antibodies between the epitopes on oxidized LDL molecules and antigen structures on oral bacteria. In the first study, immunization of mice with Porphyromonas gingivalis elevated the IgM antibody levels to MAA-LDL, implying a possibility of molecular mimicry between the epitopes on P. gingivalis and MAA adducts. Mice immunized with P. gingivalis also had less atherosclerosis compared to the control group, suggesting a protective role of IgM antibodies to MAA adducts. In the second study, mouse natural monoclonal IgG antibodies specific to MAA were cloned and their binding characteristics to oral pathogens were analyzed. IgG antibodies specific to MAA cross-reacted with P. gingivalis, recognizing important virulence factors. The results indicate that natural IgG antibodies could have an essential role in the innate immune defense. The third study investigated the antibody response in heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) immunized mice. HSP60 from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (Aa-HSP60) induced significant IgM and IgG responses towards MAA-LDL in mice. Further studies revealed that natural IgM antibodies originating from human developing fetuses’ umbilical cord blood recognized epitopes of MAA and Aa-HSP60. The data provided evidence of molecular mimicry between MAA epitope and HSP60 protein. The molecular mimicry of oral pathogens epitopes and oxidized LDL molecules is one possible mechanism linking infections and atherosclerosis. This thesis provides novel information on antibodies’ cross-reaction that could further modulate, Tiivistelmä Ateroskleroosin taustalla on matala-asteinen tulehdus, jossa bakteerien ja virusten aiheuttamat infektiot ovat vaikuttamassa taudin kehittymiseen. LDL:n (low-density lipoprotein) hapettuminen on ensiaskel ateroskleroosin synnyssä. Hapettumisessa muodostuu immuunijärjestelmää aktivoivia rakenteita, kuten malonidialdehydi-asetaldehydiä (MAA), jotka edesauttavat ateroskleroosin kehittymistä. Väitöskirjassa tutkittiin vasta-aineiden ristireaktiota hapettuneiden LDL-epitooppien ja oraalibakteereiden antigeenirakenteiden välillä. Ensimmäisessä julkaisussa hiiret immunisoitiin Porphyromonas gingivalis -bakteerilla, joka sai aikaan IgM -vasta-ainetasojen nousun MAA-LDL -partikkeleita vastaan. Tulokset antavat viitteittä epitooppien samankaltaisuudesta P. gingivalis -bakteerin ja MAA-rakenteiden välillä. P. gingivalis -immunisoiduilla hiirillä oli lisäksi vähemmän ateroskleroosiplakkeja kontrolliryhmään verrattuna, mikä puolestaan viittaa MAA-rakenteita vastaan muodostuneiden IgM-vasta-aineiden mahdolliseen ateroskleroosilta suojaavaan rooliin. Toisessa artikkelissa kloonattiin hiirten luonnollinen monoklonaalinen IgG-vasta-aine MAA-rakenteita vastaan ja analysoitiin vasta-aineiden sitoutumisominaisuuksia. Kyseiset vasta-aineet ristireagoivat P. gingivalis -bakteerin kanssa ja tunnistivat patogeenin tärkeitä virulenssitekijöitä. Tulokset antavat viitteitä luonnollisten IgG-vasta-aineiden mahdollisesta roolista osana luonnollista immuunipuolustusjärjestelmää. Kolmannessa julkaisussa tutkittiin vasta-ainepitoisuuksia lämpösokkiproteiini (HSP60) -immunisoiduilla hiirillä. Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans -bakteerin lämpösokkiproteini (Aa-HSP60) sai aikaan merkittävän IgG- ja IgM- vasta-ainetasojen nousun MAA-LDL -partikkeleita vastaan. Tutkimuksen toisessa osassa todettiin, että sikiöiden napanuoran verinäytteiden IgM-vasta-aineet sitoutuivat MAA- ja Aa-HSP60-epitooppeihin. Tulokset viittaavat MAA- ja HSP60-epitooppien samankaltaisuuteen. Vasta-aineita sitovien

The use of systemic antibiotics may influence the oral microbiota composition. Our aim was to investigate in this retrospective study whether the use of prescribed antibiotics associate with periodontal status, oral microbiota, and antibodies against the periodontal pathogens. The Social Insurance Institution of Finland Data provided the data on the use of systemic antibiotics by record linkage to purchased medications and entitled reimbursements up to 1 year before the oral examination and sampling. Six different classes of antibiotics were considered. The Parogene cohort included 505 subjects undergoing coronary angiography with the mean (SD) age of 63.4 (9.2) years and 65% of males. Subgingival plaque samples were analysed using the checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridisation. Serum and saliva antibody levels to periodontal pathogens were analysed with immunoassays and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activity with the LAL assay. Systemic antibiotics were prescribed for 261 (51.7%) patients during the preceding year. The mean number of prescriptions among them was 2.13 (range 1–12), and 29.4% of the prescriptions were cephalosporins, 25.7% penicillins, 14.3% quinolones, 12.7% macrolides or lincomycin, 12.0% tetracycline, and 5.8% trimethoprim or sulphonamides. In linear regression models adjusted for age, sex, current smoking, and diabetes, number of antibiotic courses associated significantly with low periodontal inflammation burden index (PIBI, p < 0.001), bleeding on probing (BOP, p = 0.006), and alveolar bone loss (ABL, p = 0.042). Cephalosporins associated with all the parameters. The phyla mainly affected by the antibiotics were Bacteroidetes and Spirochaetes. Their levels were inversely associated with the number of prescriptions (p = 0.010 and p < 0.001) and directly associated with the time since the last prescription (p = 0.019 and p < 0.001). Significant inverse associations were observed between the number of prescriptions and saliva concentrations o

Background: Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is an effective treatment for obesity, which improves cardiovascular health and reduces the risk of premature mortality. However, some reports have suggested that RYGB may predispose patients to adverse health outcomes, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer. Objectives: The present prospective study aimed to evaluate the impact of RYGB surgery on cardiovascular risk factors and gastrointestinal inflammation in individuals with and without type 2 diabetes (T2D). Setting: University hospital setting in Finland. Methods: Blood and fecal samples were collected at baseline and 6 months after surgery from 30 individuals, of which 16 had T2D and 14 were nondiabetics. There were also single study visits for 6 healthy reference patients. Changes in cardiovascular risk factors, serum cholesterol, and triglycerides were investigated before and after surgery. Fecal samples were analyzed for calprotectin, anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae immunoglobulin A antibodies (ASCA), active lipopolysaccharide (LPS) concentration, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity, and methylglyoxal-hydro-imidazolone (MG-H1) protein adducts formation. Results: After RYGB, weight decreased on average −21.6% (−27.2 ± 7.8 kg), excess weight loss averaged 51%, and there were improvements in cardiovascular risk factors. Fecal calprotectin levels (P < 0.001), active LPS concentration (P < 0.002), ASCA (P < 0.02), and MG-H1 (P < 0.02) values increased significantly, whereas fecal SCFAs, especially acetate (P < 0.002) and butyrate (P < 0.03) levels, were significantly lowered. Conclusion: The intestinal homeostasis is altered after RYGB, with several fecal markers suggesting increased inflammation; however, clinical significance of the detected changes is currently uncertain. As chronic inflammation may predispose patients to adverse health effects, our findings may have relev

Gastrointestinal dysbiosis is common among persons with type 1 diabetes (T1D), but its potential impact on diabetic nephropathy (DN) remains obscure. We examined whether faecal biomarkers, previously associated with low-grade gastrointestinal inflammation, differ between healthy controls and T1D subjects with and without DN. Faecal samples were analyzed for levels of calprotectin, intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and immunoglobulins in subjects with T1D (n = 159) and healthy controls (NDC; n = 50). The subjects with T1D were stratified based on albuminuria: normoalbuminuria (< 30 mg/g; n = 49), microalbuminuria (30–299 mg/g; n = 50) and macroalbuminuria (≥ 300 mg/g; n = 60). aecal calprotectin, IAP and immunoglobulin levels did not differ between the T1D albuminuria groups. However, when subjects were stratified based on faecal calprotectin cut-off level (50 µg/g), macroalbuminuric T1D subjects exceeded the threshold more frequently than NDC (p = 0.02). Concentrations of faecal propionate and butyrate were lower in T1D subjects compared with NDC (p = 0.04 and p = 0.03, respectively). Among T1D subjects, levels of branched SCFA (BCFA) correlated positively with current albuminuria level (isobutyrate, p = 0.03; isovalerate, p = 0.005). In our study cohort, fatty acid metabolism seemed to be altered among T1D subjects and those with albuminuria compared to NDC. This may reflect gastrointestinal imbalances associated with T1D and renal complications.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease, characterized by retention of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) in the arterial wall, leading to atherosclerotic plaque formation. Subsequently, the retained LDL go through oxidative reactions forming immunogenic Oxidized-LDL (Ox-LDL). The humoral immune response to model oxidized epitopes, such as Malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde adducts (MAA-LDL), and copper-oxidized LDL play a key role in atherogenesis. Accumulating evidence has shown the link of atherosclerosis with oral health. Periodontitis is an inflammatory disease where the tooth-surrounding tissue is compromised. Periodontitis contributes to systemic inflammation and if left untreated, leads to tooth loss. The association of atherosclerosis with periodontitis has been extensively studied and several mechanisms have been suggested. Molecular mimicry of malondialdehyde epitopes with key periodontal pathogen virulence factor Porphyromonas gingivalis A hemagglutinin domain (Rgp44) epitope has been reported. On the other hand, an atherosclerotic mouse model immunized with Rgp44 showed increased levels of IgM to MAA-LDL. The above-mentioned findings raise the question whether atherosclerosis and periodontitis are associated through the cross-activation of mucosal humoral immune response by molecular mimicry. The aim of the current thesis work was to characterize salivary antibodies to oxidized epitopes and examine their cross-reactivity with antibodies to periodontal pathogens. Finally, the aim was to explore whether salivary immunoglobulins are associated with coronary artery disease (CAD) or periodontal diseases. In the first study, the salivary immunoglobulins to oxidized epitopes were characterized. In study I and II, the cross-reactivities of salivary IgA to MAA epitopes with periodontal pathogens virulence factors Rgp44 and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Heat Shock Protein 60 (Aa-HSP60) were shown. In the second study, an independent association o, Tiivistelmä Ateroskleroosiin eli valtimonkovettumatautiin liittyy krooninen matala-asteinen tulehdustila, jossa LDL (low-density lipoprotein) kolesteroli kertyy verisuonien seinämiin muodostaen ateroskleroottista plakkia. Myöhemmässä vaiheessa LDL-lipidiperoksidaatio tuottaa reaktiivisia aldehydejä, kuten malondialdehydi-asetaldehydi (MAA) -epitooppia. Hapettuneiden epitooppien synnyttämällä humoraalisella immuniteetilla on merkittävä rooli ateroskleroosin kehityksessä. Infektiot edesauttavat valtimokovettumataudin kehittymistä. Tutkimukset ovat osoittaneet, että hampaita ympäröivän kudoksen tulehdustila eli parodontiitti on valtimokovettumataudin merkittävä riskitekijä. Ateroskleroosin ja parodontiitin yhteyttä on tutkittu laajasti, mutta tarkkaa mekanismia ei vielä tunneta. On raportoitu, että MAA-epitoopilla on rakenteellista samankaltaisuutta parodontaalisen patogeenin virulenssitekijän Porphyromonas gingivalis hemagglutiniini-domeenin (Rgp44) molekyylien kanssa. Toisaalta Rgp44:llä immunisoiduilla ateroskleroottisilla hiirillä on korkeampi MAA-LDL-IgM taso kuin kontrollihiirillä. Edellä mainitut havainnot herättivät kysymyksen siitä, millainen rooli suun humoraalisella immuunivasteella on ateroskleroosin ja parodontiitin välisessä assosiaatiossa. Tämän väitöstyön tarkoituksena oli karakterisoida hapettuneita epitooppeja tunnistavia syljen vasta-aineita sekä niiden spesifisyyttä ja ristireagointia parodontaalisten patogeenien kanssa. Myös syljen hapettuneiden epitooppien vasta-aineiden assosiaatiota sepelvaltimotautiin (CAD) tai parodontaalisiin sairauksiin tutkittiin. Ensimmäisessä työssä karakterisoitiin syljen vasta-aineita, jotka tunnistavat hapettuneita epitooppeja. Tutkimustyön I ja II osassa osoitettiin, että syljen IgA MAA vasta-aineet ristireagoivat Rgp44:n ja Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans heat shock protein 60:n (Aa-HSP60) kanssa. Toisessa tutkimustyössä havaittiin myös, että syljen MAA-LDL IgA-vasta-aineiden pitoisuus liittyy itsenäisenä risk

Natural Abs are produced by B lymphocytes in the absence of external Ag stimulation. They recognise self, altered self and foreign Ags, comprising an important first-line defence against invading pathogens and serving as innate recognition receptors for tissue homeostasis. Natural IgG Abs have been found in newborns and uninfected individuals. Yet, their physiological role remains unclear. Previously, no natural IgG Abs to oxidation-specific epitopes have been reported. Here, we show the cloning and characterisation of mouse IgG mAbs against malondialdehyde acetaldehyde (MAA)-modified low-density lipoprotein. Sequence analysis reveals high homology with germline genes, suggesting that they are natural. Further investigation shows that the MAA-specific natural IgG Abs cross-react with the major periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis and recognise its principle virulence factors gingipain Kgp and long fimbriae. The study provides evidence that natural IgGs may play an important role in innate immune defence and in regulation of tissue homeostasis by recognising and removing invading pathogens and/or modified self-Ags, thus being involved in the development of periodontitis and atherosclerosis.

Objective: We investigated lipid concentrations, particle sizes and antibodies binding to periodontal bacteria Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis and to malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde (MAA) modified low-density lipoprotein in immunoglobulin (Ig) class A, G and M among patients with newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in a population-based cohort. Methods: Concentrations and sizes of lipoprotein particles analysed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and antibody levels to MAA modified low-density lipoprotein were studied at baseline and after one-year of follow-up. Serum Ig A and G class antibodies to periodontal bacteria were determined at baseline. Results: Sixty-three patients were divided into tertiles according to disease activity by disease activity score with 28 joint count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) (<3.9, 3.9–4.7, >4.7). Small low-density lipoprotein concentration was lowest in the tertile with the highest disease activity. In high-density lipoprotein, the concentrations of total, medium and small particles decreased with disease activity. The particle size in low-density lipoprotein associated with disease activity and the presence of antibodies to P. gingivalis. Ig G and M antibodies to MAA modified low-density lipoprotein correlated with disease activity. Inflammation associated changes faded by one year. Conclusions: Drug naive RA patients had proatherogenic changes in lipid profiles, but they were reversible, when inflammation diminished.

The cumulative risk score (CRS) is a mathematical salivary diagnostic model to define an individual’s risk of having periodontitis. In order to further validate this salivary biomarker, we investigated how periodontal bacteria, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and systemic and local host immune responses relate to CRS. Subgingival plaque, saliva, and serum samples collected from 445 individuals were used in the analyses. Plaque levels of 28 microbial species, especially those of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Porphyromonas endodontalis, Prevotella intermedia, and Tannerella forsythia, and serum and salivary levels of IgA and IgG against these five species were determined. Additionally, LPS activity was measured. High CRS associated strongly with all IgA/IgG antibody and LPS levels in saliva, whereas in serum the associations were not that obvious. In the final logistic regression model, the best predictors of high CRS were saliva IgA burden against the five species (OR 7.04, 95% CI 2.25–22.0), IgG burden (3.79, 1.78–8.08), LPS (2.19, 1.38–3.47), and the sum of 17 subgingival Gram-negative species (6.19, 2.10–18.3). CRS is strongly associated with microbial biomarker species of periodontitis and salivary humoral immune responses against them.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease and major cause of mortality worldwide. One of the crucial steps for atherosclerotic plaque development is oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Through the oxidation, highly immunogenic epitopes are created and the immune system is activated. Association between atherosclerosis and periodontal diseases is well documented, and one of the main oral pathogens common in periodontitis is Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (Aa). Heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) is an important virulence factor for Aa bacteria and a strong activator of the immune system. Cross-reactivity of HSP60 and oxidized LDL (OxLDL) antibodies could be a potential mechanism in the progression of atherosclerosis and one possible link between atherosclerosis and periodontitis. Human plasma samples from neonates and mothers were analyzed to determine if antibody titer to Aa-HSP60 protein is already present in newborns. Further objectives were to characterize antibody response in Aa-HSP60 immunized mice and to determine possible antibody cross-reaction with oxidized LDL. We demonstrated that newborns already have IgM antibody levels to Aa-HSP60. We also showed that in mice, Aa-HSP60 immunization provoked IgG and IgM antibody response not only to Aa-HSP60 but also to malondialdehyde acetaldehyde-modified LDL (MAA-LDL). Competition assay revealed that the antibodies were specific to Aa-HSP60 and cross-reacted with MAA-LDL. Our results suggest a possibility of molecular mimicry between Aa-HSP60 and MAA-LDL, making it intriguing to speculate on the role of HSP60 protein in atherosclerosis that manifests at young age.

Apical periodontitis is an inflammatory reaction at the apex of an infected tooth. Its microbiota resembles that of marginal periodontitis and may induce local and systemic antibodies binding to bacteria- and host-derived epitopes. Our aim was to investigate the features of the adaptive immune response in apical periodontitis. The present Parogene cohort (n = 453) comprises patients with cardiac symptoms. Clinical and radiographic oral examination was performed to diagnose apical and marginal periodontitis. A three-category endodontic lesion score was designed. Antibodies binding to the bacteria- and host-derived epitopes were determined from saliva and serum, and bacterial compositions were examined from saliva and subgingival samples. The significant ORs (95% CI) for the highest endodontic scores were observed for saliva IgA and IgG to bacterial antigens (2.90 (1.01–8.33) and 4.91 (2.48–9.71)/log10 unit), saliva cross-reacting IgG (2.10 (1.48–2.97)), serum IgG to bacterial antigens (4.66 (1.22–10.1)), and Gram-negative subgingival species (1.98 (1.16–3.37)). In a subgroup without marginal periodontitis, only saliva IgG against bacterial antigens associated with untreated apical periodontitis (4.77 (1.05–21.7)). Apical periodontitis associates with versatile adaptive immune responses against both bacterial- and host-derived epitopes independently of marginal periodontitis. Saliva immunoglobulins could be useful biomarkers of oral infections including apical periodontitis—a putative risk factor for systemic diseases.

Treatment of periodontitis has beneficial effects on systemic inflammation markers that relate to progression of atherosclerosis. We aimed to investigate whether immunization with A hemagglutinin domain (Rgp44) of Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg), a major etiologic agent of periodontitis, would lead to an antibody response cross-reacting with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) and how it would affect the progression of atherosclerosis in low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (LDLR-/-) mice. The data revealed a prominent IgM but not IgG response to malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde modified LDL (MAA-LDL) after Rgp44 and Pg immunizations, implying that Rgp44/Pg and MAA adducts may share cross-reactive epitopes that prompt IgM antibody production and consequently confer atheroprotection. A significant negative association was observed between atherosclerotic lesion and plasma IgA to Rgp44 in Rgp44 immunized mice, supporting further the anti-atherogenic effect of Rgp44 immunization. Plasma IgA levels to Rgp44 and toPg in both Rgp44- and Pg-immunized mice were significantly higher than those in saline control, suggesting that IgA to Rgp44 could be a surrogate marker of immunization in Pg-immunized mice. Distinct antibody responses in plasma IgA levels to MAA-LDL, to Pg lipopolysaccharides (Pg-LPS), and to phosphocholine (PCho) were observed after Rgp44 and Pg immunizations, indicating that different immunogenic components between Rpg44 and Pg may behave differently in regard of their roles in the development of atherosclerosis. Immunization with Rgp44 also displayed atheroprotective features in modulation of plaque size through association with plasma levels of IL-1α whereas whole Pg bacteria achieved through regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine levels of IL-5 and IL-10. The present study may contribute to refining therapeutic approaches aiming to modulate immune responses and inflammatory/anti-inflammatory processes in atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is widely accepted to be a chronic inflammatory disease, and the immunological response to the accumulation of LDL is believed to play a critical role in the development of this disease. 1,4-Dihydropyridine-type MAA-adducted LDL has been implicated in atherosclerosis. Here, we have demonstrated that pure MAA-modified residues can be chemically conjugated to large proteins without by-product contamination. Using this pure antigen, we established a purified MAA-ELISA, with which a marked increase in anti-MAA antibody titer was determined at a very early stage of atherosclerosis in 3-month ApoE-/- mice fed with a normal diet. Our methods of Nε-MAA-L-lysine purification and purified antigen-based ELISA will be easily applicable for biomarker-based detection of early stage atherosclerosis in patients, as well as for the development of an adduct-specific Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry-based quantification of physiological and pathological levels of MAA.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease and infections potentially contribute to its pathogenesis. Oxidation of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) is a key event in atherogenesis. Lipid peroxidation produces reactive aldehydes such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and MDA-acetaldehyde that form immunogenic adducts on for example LDL particles. This thesis investigated natural IgM antibodies that recognize MDA and MDA-acetaldehyde adducts and bind, through molecular mimicry, to epitopes on oral pathogenic bacteria. In the first study, the induction of cross-reactive IgM antibodies binding to MDA adducts was investigated in mice immunized with periodontopathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis. The effect of immunization on the development of atherosclerosis was analyzed after a high fat diet. Immunization of mice with killed P. gingivalis elevated IgM levels to MDA adducts and reduced atherosclerosis. Mouse monoclonal IgM to MDA modified LDL recognized epitopes on P. gingivalis that were identified as gingipain protease enzyme of this bacterium. The presence of IgM with similar specificity was also demonstrated in human sera. In the second study the effect of immunization with MDA modified LDL in conferring protection against pathogen-accelerated atherosclerosis was investigated. Mice were immunized with MDA modified LDL before challenge with live P. gingivalis. The extent of atherosclerosis after a high fat diet was reduced in immunized mice compared to control groups. Immunized mice had elevated IgM and IgG levels to MDA modified LDL compared to controls. The third study investigated antibody recognition of MDA-acetaldehyde adducts in umbilical cord blood plasma of preterm and full-term newborns. Natural IgM to MDA-acetaldehyde adducts was enriched in umbilical cord blood plasma compared to maternal levels even in preterm neonates. This thesis highlighted the importance of immune recognition of MDA adducts by natural IgM antibodies, and demonstrated that pathogenic, Tiivistelmä Valtimonkovettumatautiin, eli ateroskleroosiin, liittyy matala-asteinen tulehdustila, ja myös infektiot vaikuttavat taudin ilmentymiseen. LDL:n (low-density lipoprotein) hapettuminen on merkittävä valtimonkovettumataudin syntyä edistävä reaktio. Lipidiperoksidaatio tuottaa reaktiivisia aldehydejä, kuten malonidialdehydiä (MDA) ja MDA-asetaldehydiä, jotka muodostavat immuunijärjestelmän tunnistamia rakenteita esimerkiksi LDL-partikkeleihin. Väitöskirjassa tutkittiin luonnollisia IgM-vasta-aineita, jotka tunnistavat MDA- ja MDA-asetaldehydirakenteita, ja jotka rakenteiden samankaltaisuuden takia sitoutuvat myös parodontiittipatogeenien epitooppeihin. Ensimmäisessä työssä MDA-rakenteisiin sitoutuvien IgM-vasta-aineiden ristireaktiota tutkittiin hiirillä, jotka immunisoitiin Porphyromonas gingivalis parodontiittipatogeenillä. Hiirten immunisoiminen inaktivoidulla P. gingivalis bakteerilla lisäsi IgM-vasta-ainetasoja MDA-rakenteita vastaan ja vähensi valtimonkovettumatautia. MDA-LDL:ään sitoutuva hiiren monoklonaalinen IgM-vasta-aine sitoutui P. gingivalis bakteerin proteiineihin, joiden tunnistettiin olevan osia tämän bakteerin gingipain proteaasientsyymistä. Myös ihmisen seerumista osoitettiin IgM-vasta-aineita, joilla oli samantyyppinen sitoutumisspesifisyys. Toisessa työssä tutkittiin MDA-LDL-immunisaation suojaavaa vaikutusta infektion kiihdyttämän valtimonkovettumataudin synnyssä. Hiiret immunisoitiin MDA-LDL:llä ennen infektiota elävällä P. gingivalis bakteerilla. Valtimonkovettumatauti väheni immunisoiduilla hiirillä rasvaruokinnan jälkeen verrattuna kontrolliryhmiin. Immunisoiduilla hiirillä IgM- ja IgG-vasta-ainetasot MDA-LDL:ää vastaan olivat kohonneet verrattuna kontrolliryhmiin. Kolmannessa työssä tutkittiin, tunnistavatko ennenaikaisten ja täysiaikaisten vastasyntyneiden luonnolliset vasta-aineet MDA-asetaldehydirakenteita. IgM-vasta-aineita MDA-asetaldehydirakenteisiin esiintyi jo ennenaikaisesti syntyneiden napaverinäytteissä. MDA-asetaldehydi

Carbamylation of proteins in vivo occurs by cyanate, non-enzymatically when urea is dissociated, and by myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxidation from thiocyanate. Carbamylation of low-density lipoprotein is suggested to enhance atherogenesis in patients with with chronic kidney disease and uremia. This thesis study assessed the questions of whether healthy humans or uremic patients under enhanced carbamylation have antibodies recognizing carbamyl-epitopes in plasma, and what is their role in vivo. Also, humoral immune response to carbamyl-LDL immunization and its impact on atherogenesis in LDLR-/- mice was investigated. In this thesis study, plasma antibodies to carbamylated proteins were detected in humans, and IgG antibodies to carbamylated proteins were associated with uremia and smoking, conditions with enhanced carbamylation. The human IgG and IgM antibodies binding to carbamyl-epitopes were associated with oxidation-specific epitopes in plasma. Monoclonal Fab antibodies with characteristics of a natural antibody and ability to bind both carbamyl- and malondialdehyde-derived epitopes were cloned from healthy humans. An investigated Fab antibody was able to bind epitopes found in atherosclerotic lesions and inhibit the uptake of modified LDL by macrophages. Human plasma antibodies and the monoclonal Fab bound to epitopes found on apoptotic cells. Human B-cells secreted antibodies with similar cross-reactive binding properties between carbamyl- and malondialdehyde adducts and apoptotic cells in vitro. Immunization with mouse carbamyl-LDL without adjuvant resulted in specific IgG immune response in LDLR-/- mice, but also a cross-reaction with malondialdehyde-adducts was observed. Carbamyl-LDL immunized mice had enhanced plasma antibody binding to apoptotic cells. Carbamyl-LDL immunization did not affect atherogenesis in mice. This thesis demonstrates that IgG antibodies to carbamyl-epitope might serve as a novel indicator of carbamylation in vivo in uremic pat, Tiivistelmä Proteiinien karbamylaatiota tapahtuu syanaatin vaikutuksesta. Sitä muodostuu urean hajotessa tai myeloperoksidaasin katalysoimana tiosyanaatin hapettuessa. Low-density lipoproteiinin eli LDL:n karbamylaation on esitetty edistävän valtimonkovettumataudin eli ateroskleroosin kehittymistä munuaisten vajaatoimintaa sairastavilla ureemisilla potilailla. Väitöskirjatyössä tutkittiin, onko terveillä ihmisillä ja ureemisilla potilailla karbamyyli-epitooppeja tunnistavia vasta-aineita, ja mikä niiden merkitys on elimistössä. Humoraalista immuunivastetta karbamyyli-LDL-immunisaation jälkeen sekä sen vaikutusta ateroskleroosin kehittymiseen tutkittiin LDL-reseptoripuutteellisilla hiirillä. Tutkimuksessa osoitettiin, että ihmisillä on plasmassa karbamyloituja proteiineja tunnistavia vasta-aineita. IgG-luokan vasta-aineet ovat yhteydessä uremiaan ja tupakointiin, joissa karbamylaatio on lisääntynyt. Karbamyyli- ja hapettuneita epitooppeja tunnistavien plasman IgG- ja IgM-vasta-aineiden välillä havaittiin olevan yhteys. Työssä kloonattiin terveistä ihmisistä monoklonaalisia Fab-vasta-aineita, joilla on luonnollisten vasta-aineiden kaltaisia ominaisuuksia ja kyky sitoutua sekä karbamyyli- että malonidialdehydi-epitooppeihin. Yksi tutkittu Fab-vasta-aine sitoutui valtimonkovettumataudin ateroomissa oleviin epitooppeihin ja esti muuntuneen LDL:n sisäänoton makrofagi-soluihin. Ihmisen plasman vasta-aineet ja monoklonaalinen Fab-vasta-aine sitoutuivat apoptoottisten solujen pinnalla oleviin rakenteisiin. Soluviljelyolosuhteissa ihmisen B-solut tuottivat vasta-aineita, joilla oli samanlaisia ristireaktio-ominaisuuksia karbamyyli- ja malonidialdehydi-epitooppeja sekä apoptoottisia soluja kohtaan. Karbamyyli-LDL-immunisaatio sai aikaan IgG-immuunivasteen hiirillä karbamyyli-LDL:a kohtaan, mutta myös ristireaktio malonidialdehydi-rakenteita sekä apoptoottisia soluja kohtaan havaittiin. Karbamyyli-LDL-immunisaatio ei vaikuttanut ateroskleroosin kehittymiseen hiirillä. Tutkimus

Heavy alcohol consumption places a substantial burden on health all over the world. Metabolites of alcohol evoke alterations that lead to tissue damage in many organs. Phosphatidylethanol (PEth) is a unique phospholipid formed in the cellular membranes during the metabolism of ethanol after alcohol consumption. PEth has attracted special attention as it is postulated to be a reliable marker of long term heavy alcohol consumption. The aims of present study were to investigate the immunogenicity of phosphatidylethanol in mice and to analyze the plasma antibodies binding to phosphatidylethanol in humans. In this study a clear immune response was generated in mice immunized with PEth in human low density lipoprotein (LDL) carrier. Mouse monoclonal IgM antibodies binding specifically to phosphoethyl head group of PEth were generated using hybridoma technology. Since PEth was shown to be immunogenic in mice, plasma was analyzed for the presence of antibodies also in humans. PEth-specific antibodies of IgG, IgA and IgM isotypes in plasma were detected in heavy drinkers of alcohol with or without pancreatitis as well as in the controls. The plasma levels of the antibodies binding to PEth were significantly lower in the study subjects with heavy alcohol use and in this present study sample the low IgA levels to PEth were better indicators of heavy alcohol consumption as compared to the some of the traditional markers of heavy alcohol use. The antibody levels to PEth associated significantly to plasma antibodies binding to malondialdehyde-acetaldehyde adducts that are known to be formed during alcohol metabolism but not to antibodies binding to phosphocholine which is generated by lipid oxidation in humans. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that phosphatidylethanol is immunogenic in mice when using carriers such as human LDL in the immunization process. The binding of the monoclonal antibodies specifically to the PEth head group suggests that it would be feasibl, Tiivistelmä Runsas alkoholinkulutus aiheuttaa maailmanlaajuisesti merkittäviä terveydellisiä haittoja. Alkoholin aineenvaihduntatuotteet muuttavat kudoksien rakenteita ja aiheuttavat kudosvaurioita. Fosfatidyylietanoli on alkoholin aineenvaihdunnan tuloksena solukalvoilla syntyvä fosfolipidi, jota on tutkittu kahdenkymmenen vuoden ajan lupaavana alkoholin suurkulutuksen merkkiaineena. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää fosfatidyylietanolin immunisoinnin aiheuttamaa vasta-aineiden muodostumista koe-eläinmallina käytetyissä hiirissä sekä määrittää ihmisten plasmanäytteistä vasta-aineita, jotka sitoutuvat fosfatidyylietanoliin. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin immuunivasteen muodostuminen hiirissä, jotka immunisoitiin ihmisen LDL hiukkasiin liitetyllä fosfatidyylietanolilla. Hiiren monoklonaalisia fosfatidyylietanoliin sitoutuvia IgM-luokan vasta-aineita tuotettiin tutkimuksessa soluviljelyn avulla. Fosfatidyylietanolin aiheuttama vasta-aineiden muodostuminen hiirillä johdatti mittaamaan fosfatidyylietanoliin sitoutuvia vasta-aineita myös ihmisiltä. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin fosfatidyylietanoliin sitoutuvia IgG-, IgA- ja IgM-luokan vasta-aineita alkoholin suurkuluttajilla, alkoholihaimatulehdusta sairastavilla ja verrokkihenkilöillä. Vasta-aineiden pitoisuudet olivat alkoholia runsaasti käyttävillä koehenkilöillä merkitsevästi pienemmät kuin verrokkiryhmällä. Matalat IgA-vasta-ainepitoisuudet osoittautuivat aineistossa paremmaksi alkoholin suurkulutuksen osoittajiksi kuin eräät tavanomaisesti käytetyt alkoholinkäytön merkkiaineet. Plasman fosfatidyylietanoli-vasta-aineiden ja alkoholin aineenvaihdunnan seurauksena syntyvien malondialdehydi-asetaldehydi-addukteihin sitoutuvien vasta-aineiden määrän välillä havaittiin merkitsevä yhteys, jota ei havaittu rasvojen hapettumisen seurauksena syntyvien fosfokoliini-vasta-aineiden ja fosfatidyylietanoli-vasta-aineiden välillä. Tutkimus osoittaa, että hiirillä voidaan aikaansaada vasta-ainevälitteinen immuunivaste, kun ne rokotetaan i