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Item does not contain fulltext Resistance toward persuasion has received more and more attention in the past decades to explain the ineffectiveness of (threatening) health messages. In the literature, several motivations for resistance and strategies to resist health messages (i.e., defensive responses) have been identified and studied. Moreover, research on persuasive strategies like self-affirmation, entertainment-education, and empathy arousal have found positive results on decreasing or overcoming resistance. New lines of research on these topics should focus on the relationships between resistance motivations, resistance strategies, and resistance-overcoming persuasion strategies.

Health communication campaigns and messages often contain information that makes people aware that they engage in unhealthy behaviors and therefore can be perceived as threatening by people. As a result, people often respond defensively to such information and do not change their unhealthy behaviors. Self-affirmation theory suggests that people respond defensively because the health information poses a threat to people’s self-integrity, that is, their view of themselves as being a good and adequate person. Importantly, self-affirmation theory further proposes that defensive responses to health information can be reduced by giving people an alternative opportunity to maintain self-integrity before exposing them to the health information. This alternative opportunity is called self-affirmation (i.e., an act that demonstrates one’s adequacy). Empirical studies and meta-analyses suggest that self-affirmation can have small but positive effects on reducing defensive responses and can positively influence health message acceptance, intention formation, and health behavior. Important areas for future health communication research are to investigate the mechanisms through which self-affirmation reduces defensive responses to health information, how self-affirmation works in combination with typical communication variables (e.g., message and source factors, medium and audience characteristics), and how self-affirmation can be used in real-world health communication settings.

Figurative language is a form of non-literal language that consists of two subtypes: (i) schemes like alliteration and rhyme that focus on excessive regularity and (ii) tropes like metaphor and irony which emphasize irregularity. In the classical perspective, figurative language was mainly seen as an ornamental packaging cue, by presenting a literal statement in a more attention-grabbing way. The contemporary perspective on figuration acknowledges that rhetorical devices like metaphor, hyperbole, and irony can also contain conceptual content and serve as frames. Such figurative frames can serve various communicative goals, including sensemaking and behavior change. In terms of sensemaking, figurative frames can make complex and abstract health issues more concrete and easier to understand. This can occur in a variety of settings, such as health campaigns, illness narratives, and health policies. Figurative frames can be used for sensemaking in empowering and disempowering ways. In the latter case, figurative frames may be explicitly resisted or actively reframed. In health campaigns, figurative language can be used for behavior change. In such cases, the figurative devices are often novel and creative, and present recipients with a small puzzle to solve. Solving this puzzle can generate positive feelings, which can transfer to the campaign message. In some cases, using figuration in health campaigns can backfire, for instance when recipients do not understand or incorrectly interpret the figurative message. Figurative language thus has an important potential in health communication, but this message strategy can also lead to resistance and unintended consequences.

Health informatics (also referred to as medical informatics or biomedical informatics) is an interdisciplinary field that deals with health-related data in healthcare and with the technologies that are used to support healthcare services. While the goal of some health informatics systems is to automate processes, the more common goal is to help clinicians, patients, policymakers, and others to manage health information, and to communicate that information efficiently and effectively to end users. Thus, there is considerable overlap between the fields of health informatics and health communication, and this intriguing intersection between the two fields opens many opportunities for innovation. Health communication is often visible in health informatics in the area of patient communication. Examples of this include patient self-management tools that support behavior change. Correspondingly, health informatics is often visible in health communication in the use of computational methods and “big data” to build on communication theory. Future research in health communication will likely involve more and more intensive use of information technology. This can bring exciting new possibilities for both interventions and analytical techniques, yet researchers should ensure that information technology interventions respect participants' privacy and guarantee their safety. Investigating the effect of information technology on communications between healthcare professionals and with patients also offers interesting opportunities for collaborative research.

Item does not contain fulltext Alcohol advertising is widespread and has increased over the past years. The exposure to and effects of alcohol marketing have been the focus of much research. Based on several systematic reviews and meta-analyses, there is consensus that alcohol marketing has a causal effect on increased drinking behavior. Some issues, however, still deserve more scientific attention. First, although some studies suggest that certain risk groups may be especially vulnerable to alcohol marketing, the number of studies focusing on risk groups other than young people (e.g., adults with alcohol dependence or in recovery, pregnant women) is still limited. Therefore, we advise future researchers to provide further insight into the effects of alcohol marketing among these vulnerable groups. Second, although research has shown an association between social media alcohol marketing and drinking behavior as well as affective and cognitive responses, there are still several areas that need to be explored more in this context (e.g., the role of social media influencers). Furthermore, the effect of marketing for new products (e.g., nonalcoholic drinks or hard seltzers) on drinking behavior is still unknown. It is essential that these new forms of alcohol marketing are researched thoroughly.

For many people, it is challenging to maintain a healthy weight in an environment that heavily promotes the (over)consumption of palatable yet often unhealthy food and beverages. Each year, billions of dollars are spent on food advertising, and the vast majority is for energy-dense products, high in added fat, sugar, and/or salt. Even though traditional outlets (e.g., television, billboards) remain popular advertising avenues among marketers, the volume of digital advertising and the variety of ways in which it manifests (e.g., via social media, mobile apps, games) have massively increased in recent years. Research has shown clear evidence that exposure to food advertising increases preferences, purchases, and intake of promoted products. Children, in particular, appear to be vulnerable to advertising messages, at least partly due to their poor cognitive skills in recognizing its persuasive intent. Even though older children and adults demonstrate better capabilities in this regard, a diverse array of message strategies and other persuasive tactics salient to them (e.g., nutritional claims, emotional appeals, celebrity endorsement, embedded advertising) are used, meaning they are also highly susceptible to advertising effects. To combat the detrimental influences of food advertising, two general approaches have been proposed: restricting the amount and power of advertising, and reducing its impact. In a world of pervasive food advertising, in which digitalization has recently enabled marketers with a range of new opportunities to even better reach and persuade potential consumers, major regulatory actions are urgently needed to protect consumers in the battle against overweight and obesity.

COVID-19 is a highly contagious disease first identified in December 2019 and has caused a pandemic of respiratory illness. During a global public health crisis like this one, health communication serves an instrumental role in controlling the spread of the virus. This entry provides a brief overview of the public health communication practices in the midst of the pandemic. Specifically, we focus on public health messaging in relation to the nature of the disease and mitigation measures in North America, Asia, and Europe. We identify several communication challenges during the pandemic and offer recommendations for future communication. Submitted/Accepted version

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines such as cough medicine and painkillers that people can literally buy over the counter in diverse kinds of retail shops. With increasingly aging and health-conscious populations, the advertising of these drugs is a huge industry where advertising practices are importantly shaped by the status of these drugs as “in-between” prescription drugs and regular consumer products. A significant share of the advertisements thereby promotes the – illicit – sales of stronger drugs, especially over the Internet. Concerns typically voiced over OTC drug advertising practices are that the ads tend to contain unverified or exaggerated appeals about the drugs' positive effects, while often omitting or downplaying information about potential risks and side effects. Alternative views, however, place more emphasis on the contribution of OTC drug advertising to the containment of public health spending, and to the empowerment of citizen groups that face barriers in access to professional care.

Medical marketing is a long-lived and multimillion-dollar industry, but also a much disputed one. Among the presently highly disputed domains is the marketing of medical tests and screenings. A second much debated domain is the marketing of diseases, such as “low T,” to boost the sales of products and services for the treatment of the relevant disease. The marketing of medical treatments is a third domain attracting much public debate, with the promotion of frontier-tech therapies and cosmetic surgery as noticeable examples. Empirical research on the effects of medical marketing campaigns on individuals or society is essentially scant, but criticism especially targets the – presumed – effects on overtreatment, wasted resources, and an overall medicalized society. Alternative views, on the other hand, highlight the contributions that medical marketing can make to innovation and patient empowerment.

Persuasive health technologies are technologies that are designed to change attitudes or health behaviors of users through persuasion and social influence without using coercion. This entry introduces what persuasive health technology is, how it is used to support behavior change interventions, and what the relative advantages are. Technology-based health interventions have high potential because of the many technological affordances they offer, but problems related to engagement and participation significantly limit their effectiveness. Health communication scholars can contribute to the effectiveness of persuasive health technologies by using theory- and evidence-based approaches in developing and testing them. We describe three different models that can help improve the design and persuasiveness of persuasive health technologies: Fogg's behavioral model (FBM), persuasive system design model (PSD), and behavioral intervention technology model (BIT). We also reflect on the ethical concerns that should be taken into account in the development of persuasive technologies. Future health communication research can play an essential role in understanding how applying persuasive health technology and behavioral intervention technology models can impact the use and effectiveness of persuasive technologies for health.

Health communication is a complex, multidetermined process, a full understanding of which necessitates a consideration of biological, psychological, and sociocultural phenomena. Communication neuroscience is a burgeoning subfield that complements a long history of biological approaches to communication. By considering the neural processes relevant to communication, communication neuroscience emphasizes that communication is an embodied process, occurring in, through, and to bodies. Neuroimaging approaches provide insight into the neural correlates of health communication processes, allow the testing of competing theories and the generation of new hypotheses, and provide tools to predict the success of health communication efforts designed to change behavior.