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This paper explores the profound lessons of the Qur’ān about equality and social justice, as well as how these lessons relate to promoting world peace. The goal is to clarify the fundamental ideas of the Qur’ān that support gender equality, economic justice, and human dignity while examining their applicability in the modern world. The study uses a thorough examination of Qur’ānic verses, closely examining particular allusions to social issues and their historical background to produce complex interpretations. One of the main goals is to determine the connection between social justice, equality, and world peace. The study recognizes and tackles widespread misunderstandings and historical obstacles that have impeded the successful application of Qur’ānic principles, even despite the rich Islamic tradition that places a strong emphasis on these values. Additionally, the paper evaluates the current obstacles to social justice advocacy and offers solutions. A thorough examination of the role of Muslim communities and leaders is conducted, emphasizing their obligations to advance social justice and peace worldwide. Furthermore, a comparative examination with alternative religious and ideological viewpoints is conducted to find points of agreement for interfaith communication and cooperation. The article concludes by making suggestions on how communities, governments, and legislators can incorporate the Qur’ānic teachings into real-world projects. It emphasizes the critical role that social justice and equality play in bringing about enduring world peace.

The aim of this article is to clarify Nedžad Grabus' claim that Muslims in Slovenia are Ramadan Muslims. The article shows how many Muslims in Slovenia choose to fast and presents the celebration of Ramadan Bayram in Slovenia. It also highlights the problem of consumerism during Ramadan, which helps to raise awareness of the holiday while distancing it from its very essence.

After the Iranian Revolution's success in 1979, authority transferred to Islamist factions, swiftly establishing a political framework predominantly grounded in the Shiite Islamic legal principles of the Twelve Imams. The emerging political structure and its Islamic proponents encountered unprecedented circumstances and challenges necessitating modern perspectives and interpretations. Nonetheless, traditional Shiite epistemological frameworks proved inadequate in providing scientific methods to address these issues. Consequently, a group of scholars among Muslim clerics and intellectuals surfaced, engaging not only in classical Islamic theological studies but also in exploring contemporary Western knowledge. This endeavour introduced a new outlook into Iran's theological discussions. This article aims to outline the emergence of a theological movement in Iran by examining the contemporary concepts deliberated by scholars like Mohammad M. Shabestari, Mustafa Malekian, and Mohsen Kadivar. Their Islamic hermeneutical initiatives have significantly contested conventional Shiite theology, despite its continuing dominance in the Islamic religious spheres within the nation. The article posits that the fresh theological ideas and concepts introduced by these three Iranian scholars have wielded substantial influence within emerging intellectual, academic, and university circles in Iran. Moreover, these ideas have extended beyond the confines of Islamic theological spheres, promoting a conciliatory atmosphere between Iranian Islamists and modernists.

From 1998 to 2023, Archbishop, Metropolitan and Cardinal of Zagreb Josip Bozanić delivered his Easter messages to the faithful each year on the occasion of the greatest Christian feast: Easter. After a brief exposition of each message in the first paragraph, in the second paragraph, the article systematically presents the vision of the Church outlined by Cardinal Bozanić. There are four main ecclesiological themes within which the Cardinal speaks theologically about the Church and presents his vision of the Church: 1. the origin and mystery of the Church; 2. the holiness of the Church and the sinfulness of its members; 3. the preaching activity of the Church and 4. the social activity of the Church. The Church is sent to transform this world with the power of grace and mercy from the risen Christ himself. Despite all the difficulties the Church is facing, and especially despite the sinfulness of its members, Cardinal Bozanić has a positive and optimistic view of the Church.

The purpose of the article is to provide one of the possible religiological interpretations of the theme of human dominion over nature, which is found in the Biblical text about creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3. The main thesis of the article is that the Biblical commandment to rule can be understood in the context of the sacralization of the profane. For this purpose, the article mostly relies on the theory of the sacred developed by Mircea Eliade and partly on Jan Assmann's thoughts on the totality of monotheism. Based on this, the article observes that biblical dominion can be seen on three horizons, which are primarily existential and concern man's religious experience. These are the horizon of the sacred, the horizon of the mythical and the horizon of the totality. The latter is particularly characteristic of the monotheistic perception of dominion and manifests itself as an uncompromising consecration of time, space and beings. These processes are often carried out through the biblical language of conflict, which can also take on violent meanings. Therefore, the article initially presents complex and often controversial nature of the concept of dominion on the example of ecological criticism, which accuses Genesis of an anthropocentric abuse of nature. Nevertheless, violent and exploitative rule is not the core of monotheism. This is discussed in the rest of the article, which is dedicated to Eliade and Assmann's religiological thought and shows that the goal of a religious person is to bring himself and all of creation closer to their transcendental origin. The biblical engagement with dominion is therefore not anthropocentric, but theocentric, and does not have as its motive economic or political totalitarianism, but rather the total sanctification of the world according to the paradigmatic model of the creation myth.

The existence of polyphonic forms within the liturgical music of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches appears to be closely related to the domain of ecumenical dialogue. The appearance of polyphonic music in the liturgy, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, aimed to preserve the unique identity of both the nations and the Church within the given cultural context. The authors use a comparative analysis of the material gathered from both theological and musicological field. Using the example of church polyphony, the authors argue that ecumenical dialogue is also correlated with the issue of music in the liturgy and, consequently, with everyday life.

In recent years, several disputes between Orthodox churches over jurisdictional and politico-ideological matters have raised questions about Eastern Orthodoxy’s commitment to peace. However, as a Christian denomination, Eastern Orthodoxy is theologically centred around the fundamental Christian values of love and peace. To illustrate how Eastern Orthodoxy can inspire a life devoted to peace, this article focuses on Anastasios Yannoulatos (b. 1929), the current Archbishop of the Albanian Orthodox Church, whose life constitutes a concrete Eastern Orthodox example of peace. Firstly, Archbishop Anastasios’ life story and core theological ideas are presented, and secondly, his contribution to peace is briefly highlighted.

Spirit Christology has resonated within Anglican, Protestant, and Catholic theology. This is due to several limits of the traditional approach based on the formula of Chalcedon which have been highlighted since the 18th century. Entangling Christology and Pneumatology is regarded a promising solution to the notorious problem of explaining the person of Jesus Christ. In this paper, both the intentions and the challenges of Spirit Christology are being displayed. An important aspect will be to differentiate between two types of Spirit Christology: first, attempts to deepen and enrich the understanding of the traditional approach, and second, attempts to replace it. In recent theological discourse, both views are being expressed.

This paper explores the Apostle Paul's teachings on righteousness and justification, emphasizing forensic, covenantal, apocalyptic, and sacramental aspects of his theology. Analysing key passages in Romans and Galatians, it integrates insights from contemporary theologians Douglas Campbell, N.T. Wright, and Pope Benedict XVI. Central to Paul's theology is the concept of justification by faith and the transformative power of divine grace. This study highlights the theological richness of Paul's teachings, while also acknowledging their ecumenical potential. By synthesizing these perspectives, the paper offers a comprehensive understanding of Pauline righteousness and its enduring relevance in contemporary Christian life.

In the Bible and in various religions in general, odour appears in connection with ritual scents, offerings to God, devotion to God, the body odour of anointed bodies, and as a protective agent in the ritual fumigation of rooms. In religious texts, the deities are also described as having a pleasant smell. Incenses, which produce and spread a pleasantly fragrant smoke when burned and are used in religious ceremonies, can be divided into those of plant origin (frankincense, myrrh) and those of animal origin (ambergris), depending on the source of production. Frankincense and myrrh are the fragrances most frequently mentioned in the Bible, but they were also used in cosmetics and medicine due to their pleasant odour and disinfectant effect. Ambergris is not mentioned in the Bible, but its occasional ritual use in Christianity can be deduced from other sources. In addition to frankincense, the Bible also mentions other fragrant substances, mainly of plant origin (galbanum, mastic, cassia, cinnamon, aloe, cypress, sweet flag, saffron), various plant mixtures (nard, balsam), and mineral fragrances. On the other hand, the sacred texts also mention the stench, which is always associated with impurity and immorality. In the article, the author uses examples from the Bible to show the binary nature of odours according to their function.

Shibboleth is a special sociolinguistic category, denoting a functional communicative mechanism; a word, a phrase, or merely just a phoneme used as a test or a marker to identify people through their pronunciation. The term and the concept originate in a short passage in the Old Testament of the Bible, Book of Judges, chapter 12, verses 5 and 6 – called The Shibboleth incident – which describes a language trial administered by the Gileadites in order to identify disguised Ephraimites and kill them. Throughout history in different parts of the world, strikingly similar stories have emerged, set in comparable contextual circumstances of inter-ethnic bloodshed. In the article, a comprehensive folkloristic comparative analysis of various shibboleth accounts is presented, prompting a question if these stories are standalone narrative material; or if they are rather individual articulations (ecotypes) of an otherwise shared timeless migratory narrative folklore motif.

In the present research, we have analysed the differences between important global religious orientations in entrepreneurial intention, which the student population shows when making a career decision. Using quantitative approach, we investigated the influence of personal and environmental factors on students' entrepreneurial intention at a global level. 154,535 students from 52 countries participated in the survey. We examined and detected the different influences of individual factors on students' entrepreneurial intention in four observed groups: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and individuals who do not belong to any religion. Important differences were detected between the groups, which can help state and religious institutions create their programs and activities to fulfil their mission. Our findings show that members of Islam have the strongest entrepreneurial intention. The lowest level of entrepreneurial intention was detected among students who do not follow any religion. In all groups, men express a stronger entrepreneurial intention compared to women. Among the members of Islam, we detected significant differences compared to the other groups, namely in the influence of the university environment, locus of control and subjective norms. Similarly, we found that the perceived level of inequality in society significantly shapes the entrepreneurial intention among Muslims and individuals who do not follow any religion, while there is no such influence among Buddhists and Christians. In addition to the above, the research findings also opened up several new questions, which we want to be the motive for further in-depth research.

In addition to printed books, Prekmurian Slovene language has a rich tradition of manuscripts (especially handwritten songbooks), which dates back to the 16th century. The preserved manuscript songbooks are mostly collections of religious, church songs; however, many mortuary songbooks can also be found. The first manuscript in Prekmurje was the socalled Prva Martjanska pesmarica (songbook), which was started by Protestants in the 16th century in the village of Martjanci (near Murska Sobota). The copyists included the songs from this songbook into their own manuscripts, and the songs spread everywhere between the Mura and the Raba. The tradition of songbooks continued in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. In the process of copying, various authors improved and added to the poems linguistically. Many of them were taken over by other authors in their printed prayer books and songbooks (e.g. Mikloš Kuzmič, Štefan Sijarto, Mihael Bakoš, Jožef Pustaj, Anton Števanec). Today some manuscripts are kept in archives or libraries, while others are still in private ownership. Several manuscripts were never recovered.

The article deals with presenting written sources about the Slovenian evangelical priest Blaž Berke and his handwritten hymnal in Prekmurian language in Hungarian and Slovenian (from the 18th to the 21st century). These sources provide some insight into Berke's life, although they do not give us enough information, only some basic but incomplete life data. Other sources or professional literature focus on the pastoral, preaching, and literary work of Blaž Berke, which he carried out in today's Prekmurje and Hungary. In these analyses, we can see his importance in the religious life of Protestant Hungarian Slovenes and the significance of his songbook in the literature of Prekmurje.

کتاب انسان، موجود ناشناخته اثر الکسیس کارِل یکی از پرخواننده‌ترین آثار سدۀ 20میلادی است که پس از انتشار در سال ۱۹۳۵م/ 1314ش، در سراسر جهان ازجمله ایران مورد توجه قرار گرفت. شهرت نویسنده به­عنوان برندۀ جایزۀ نوبل پزشکی اعتبار ادعاهای کتاب را افزود و سبب شد جریان‌های فکری مختلف با اندیشه‌های متنوع به محتوای آن استناد کنند. تا پایان سدۀ 20میلادی، این کتاب همچنان موضوع بحث‌های جهانی بود و شواهدی از تأثیر گستردۀ آن هنوز در برخی نقاط جهان، ازجمله ایران، مشاهده می‌شود. با گذشت حدود ۹۰ سال از انتشار کتاب، اختلاف‌نظرها در فهم پیام اصلی آن ادامه دارد. حامیان و منتقدان پیام‌هایی را برجسته کرده یا نادیده گرفته‌، و مثلاً برخی مترجمان فارسی بخش‌هایی از محتوا را تحریف کرده‌اند. در قیاس با ابهامات موجود از یک ‌سو و حجم بزرگ استنادات به کتاب از دیگر سو، تلاش کمی برای شناخت ایده‌‌های بنیادی کتاب صورت گرفته، و زمینۀ فرهنگی شکل‌گیری کتاب، پی‌آمدهای اجتماعی و فرهنگی انتشار آن در سطح جهانی، و نقدهای مختلف بر محتوای اثر نیز کم‌تر تحلیل شده است. در این مطالعه همچون تلاشی آغازگرانه برای پیشبرد این اهداف بناست با تحلیل استنباطی و مفهومی محتوای کتاب و آثاری که در پیوند با آن نوشته شده‌اند به درک دقیق‌تری از افکار بنیادی نویسنده دست یابیم.

روایتی از ابن‌اسحاق در کتاب السیرة النبویه ابن‌هشام نقل شده که پس از جنگ حنین، رسول خدا (ص) به «مؤلفة قلوبهم» که اشراف مردم بودند، از غنایم قبایل هوازن چیزهایی بخشید تا سبب الفت و دلجویی آنان شود. عبارت «مؤلفة قلوبهم» برگرفته از آیه 60 سوره توبه است که ابن‌هشام زمان نزول آن را ذیل حوادث جنگ تبوک در سال نهم هجرت و در میان آیاتی که درباره منافقین نازل شده، نقل کرده و در توضیح آن نوشته «این آیات بیان می‌کند که مستحقان و گروه‌های شایسته دریافت صدقات چه کسانی هستند». این نوشتار با تکیه بر منابع سیره‌نگاری و آثار مورخان و بهره‌گیری از تفاسیر، به روش تاریخی­ـ تطبیقی و به صورت کیفی درصدد بررسی این مسئله است که روایت مؤلفة قلوبهم، تا چه اندازه با مبانی تاریخ‌نگاری مانند اصالت سند، انطباق با دیگر گزارش‌های تاریخی قابل پذیرش است و با چه هدفی در اخبار سیره نبوی شهرت یافته است. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد، روایت «مؤلفة قلوبهم» با آیه مورد استناد گزارش «انّما الصّدقات...»، سازگاری زمانی و محتوایی ندارد و با رویکرد تاریخ‌نگاری سفارشی، در اخبار سیره جای گرفته است.

تأثیرپذیری فرهنگ‌ها امر طبیعی و تا حدودی غیرقابل اجتناب است و معمولاً فرایندی است که از طریق هم­جواری و گسترش ارتباطات رخ می‌دهد. چنانچه در جهان اسلام معاصر ازجمله در ترکیه عثمانی به‌وضوح می‌توان گسترش فرهنگ غربی را در این فرایند مشاهده نمود. با روی کار آمدن کمال آتاترک (1881-1938م) در ترکیه با پدیده‌ای مواجهیم که خود حکومت با برنامه و دستور درصدد تسریع اشاعه فرهنگی است و می­توان از آن به اشاعه دستوری یاد نمود. پدیده اشاعه دستوری هرچند کم­وبیش در تمام قلمرو جهان اسلام مشاهده می­شود، اما پیشتاز این امر ترکیۀ زمان کمال آتاترک است که به صورت گسترده تمامی عرصه‌های فرهنگ سنتی‌-‌اسلامی در این زمان دستخوش تحول اساسی شد. وی توانست به­خصوص در عرصۀ آموزش جدید، ادبیات، هنر و ارتباطات تغییر نسبتا جدی را ایجاد نماید که در این نوشتار با روش توصیفی‌-‌تحلیلی مورد بررسی قرار گرفته است. برخلاف جاهای دیگر که برنامه اشاعه دستوری با شکست مواجه شد، در ترکیه به­علت هم­جواری با غرب و زمینه‌های سیاسی موجود به موفقیت نسبی انجامید. تلاش‌های مصطفی کمال در این عرصه هرچند در موارد بسیاری مثبت و همگام با اقتضائات زمان بوده است، اما بدان سبب که این امر صرفا تقلیدی بوده و ریشه ازخودبیگانگی می‌گرفت، آسیب‌های فرهنگی زیادی نیز به همراه داشت. به همین خاطر نمی‌توان آن را یک حرکت اصلاحی محض در راستای بهبود فرهنگ جامعه اسلامی قلمداد نمود.

عباسیان به مانند نیای خود عباس، عموی پیامبر، تا پیش از پیروزی نهضتشان، شیعه و جزء موالیان اهل­بیت بودند، اما پس از دستیابی به قدرت با کنار زدن علویان و در نتیجه مواجه شدن با شورش­های آنان موضع پیشین خود را ترک گفتند و هم­نوا با اکثریت، علی (ع) و خاندانش را در مقامی فروتر از خلفای نخستین نشاندند و به تسنن گرویدند. تقریباً مواضع خلفای عصر اول عباسی دراین­باره یکسان است و تنها استثنا در این­ میان مأمون (حک. 198- 218ق) است. ازاین­رو این پژوهش در پی پاسخ بدین سؤال است که مأمون چه موضعی نسبت به علی (ع) گرفت و دلایل اتخاذ این موضع چه بود؟بر اساس یافته­های این پژوهش مأمون معتقد به حقانیت امام علی (ع) برای خلافت پس از پیامبر بود و او را بر دیگر صحابه برتری می­بخشید و اعتقاد به وصایت ایشان داشت، اما شیعیان به سبب مسئولیت او در شهادت امام رضا (ع) کمتر به این موضوع علاقه نشان داده­اند و یا درصدد انکار آن برآمده­اند. مأمون تلاش گسترده­ای برای اعتلای نام و یاد امام علی (ع) صورت داد؛ ازاین­رو می­توان مأمون را معتقد و محب اهل­بیت و شخص علی (ع) دانست؛ هرچند که او برای بقای حکومت خود در موقع لزوم دست به اقدامات متفاوتی نسبت به علویان می­زد؛ ازجمله ولیعهد کردن امام رضا (ع) و سپس به شهادت رساندن ایشان. به نظر می­رسد معتزلی بودن مأمون در کنار تأثیر اطرافیانش ازجمله معلم شیعی او کسایی نقش اصلی را در بروز این علایق شیعی داشته­اند.

In 2021, the international community of architectural and art historians started the so called “Erich Mendelsohn Initiative”, with the goal of inscribing the architectural legacy of Erich Mendelsohn on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Despite some efforts, the final list of nominated buildings, along with the Statement of their Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and the title of the nomination has not yet been established. This article presents a new, authorial look at Erich Mendelsohn’s legacy in view of the UNESCO World Heritage. It analyses the global significance of Erich Mendelsohn’s legacy in the opinions of leading architectural historians of the 20th century. The article puts forward the preliminary list of Mendelsohn’s realisations which should embody his legacy, the criteria for assessment their historical value and the proposed title of the nomination. The main part of the article is defining the first two sections of the “Statement of Outstanding Universal Value”, to be presented in the UNESCO World Heritage Committee. According to the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention they are: the “Brief synthesis”, and the “Justification for Criteria”. In conclusion, the author argues, that the most significant qualities of Erich Mendelsohn’s architectural works are their strong expression and their dialog with the local context. Therefore, these features should be the main subjects of the Outstanding Universal Value Statement, the title and in the main narrative points of the nomination dossier for the inscription of Erich Mendelsohn’s legacy on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The province of Alicante is an administrative unit belonging to the Valencian Community, one of the 17 autonomous communities that make up Spain, and it is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula. Its historical vicissitudes have motivated the existence of many castles. All of them mark the province from north to south and from east to west. After losing their military and/or residential functions, many castles were abandoned and became ruins of reference in their landscape. Their recovery began without a defined use in the second half of the 20th century. However, the tourist development of the province of Alicante, under the Costa Blanca brand, has turned these castles into a first-rate cultural and tourist resource. In this way, many actions have been carried out on their cultural and tourist use to learn about the history of the places where they are. For this reason, the present work is committed to reflect on the new uses of these castles during the first quarter of the 21st century and the remains for their preservation.

The principles of the Venice Charter are still invoked worldwide as a crucial reference point in discussions and practices related to heritage preservation. However, the Charter’s lack of clarity in defining stakeholders and procedural steps raises significant issues about who has the authority to determine the appropriateness of new functions for monuments. This deficiency can lead to decision-making that might not fully consider the diverse cultural values and historical significance of the sites, potentially resulting in conservation outcomes that are more economically than socially driven. This paper examines how national and international conservation policies have expanded upon the Venice Charter to address social participation and the concept of "socially useful purposes" in World Heritage site management. Focusing on Germany and Poland World Heritage cities, the study explores how national and international guidelines have expanded upon the Venice Charter to incorporate social participation and the concept of "socially useful purposes" in the management of World Heritage sites. It delves into the role of Site Management Plans as dynamic documents that have evolved from strict preservation frameworks to policies encompassing social participation, thereby enhancing community engagement and meeting a broader spectrum of conservation needs and stakeholder interests.

The Venice Charter is central to modern conservation, and foundational for ICOMOS specifically; yet its contemporary relevance is debatable. These and other issues were discussed by ICOMOS in Budapest 20 years ago, in a conference marking the Charter’s 40th anniversary. However, questions remain as to its ongoing significance. As Bogusław Szmygin asked in 2004, does the Charter remain the ‘Decalogue' of the conservation discipline, or has it itself become a ‘Historical Monument’?The Venice Charter as a product of high modernity, with its belief in a definitive break with the past and an overcoming of tradition. The paper assesses the Charter’s ongoing relevance in relation to one pressing issue in contemporary conservation, the limits to the acceptable use of – and change to – historic buildings (Art. 5), and using an example of recent change to an English parish church. The paper argues that the acknowledged need for the interpretation of the Charter requires a hermeneutically literate approach which acknowledges the limits of a scientific/technical reading of any historic monument – the Charter included – and the importance of a dynamic understanding of the living tradition that is conservation. It concludes that the Charter remains a central text for the conservation discipline, which itself is a tradition in good health, and for that very reason its status will continue to be fiercely debated.

This article is a reflection on the Venice Charter as a product of the 1960s and places it in the context of the built heritage and the discourse related to it at that time. It provides reflections on the continued validity of the Charter, and, in particular, on its significance in times of changing climatic conditions. The article aims to re-contextualize the Charter in the 21st century and makes suggestions to ensure its continued relevance. While the Venice Charter defined the main principles of heritage conservation in the second half of the 20th century, it remains unclear whether these principles although recognized and acknowledged can be maintained in a world with very different conditions for built heritage.

The Venice Charter of 1964 has been the benchmark for tenets governing architectural conservation and set forth pivotal principles that shaped conservation practices for decades. However, conceived during a time when heritage was primarily associated with physical monuments, the landscape of cultural heritage has transformed significantly since then, encompassing immaterial aspects, democratisation of heritage values, and diverse sustainability considerations. This research aims at exploring the strengths, limitations, and adaptability of the Venice Charter in light of evolving perspectives on heritage. The paper delves into the charter's historical context, asking whether it remains a guiding beacon or a potential hindrance. A key focus of the research is the examination of obstacles associated with the conservation of younger heritage in the face of contemporary challenges posed by sustainability imperatives. The inherent complexities of managing heritage structures marked by ongoing developmental histories and changes are explored with an example of industrial heritage dealing with the concept of ‘living heritage’. In the context of a future where resource responsibility and reuse are paramount matters, firm definitions of original substance as defined in the Venice Charter, as well as a static perception of conservation, may pose challenges, particularly for unintentional monuments situated in complex environments or marked by evolving narratives through time. Marking the 60th anniversary of the Venice Charter, this research sheds light on the charter’s legacy and its validity in the contemporary landscape of heritage protection as well as the future role of the monuments in our ever-changing societal context.

In the 60 years since its adoption, the Venice Charter has become a foremost point of reference in the conservation agenda of numerous countries around the globe, especially in Europe. The celebrated document’s relation with Greece in particular started upon its very conception; one of the contributors to its compilation came from Greece, namely architect Efstathios Stikas. Yet despite this early connection, the charter’s influence in Greek conservation matters was initially minimal, and only after 1974, became substantial. Based on bibliographic and archival research, coupled with personal experience from related duties, the present paper seeks to review and appraise the development of the usefulness of the charter in the Greek context, with emphasis on its post-1974 contribution in four major fields of related action: legislation, judicial affairs, specialized education, and conservation and restoration works. This assessment provides the basis for a conclusive remark as to the acclaimed document’s culminating function, along with proposals for an optimization of its future contribution.

The stability of traditional relations and the lack of development of the economic structure in the Qajar period were among the causes of the decline and the occurrence of social and economic crises. This disorder affected various groups and led to difficulties in livelihood and life matters. As one of the lower groups of the society, the theologians learned science under the supervision and support of the religious schools, and often lived on religious funds, but the economic crises directly affected the lives of the theologians by decreasing the general income of the society and as a result of the lack of funds, and led them to earn unconventional incomes. In Zanjan, Jameh Mosque, as the most important and largest religious school, had the largest number of theologians, and they, like other areas, faced challenges and livelihood problems. This study raises the question is raised that due to the unfavorable state of the economy in the Qajar period, how and by what (unconventional) methods the theologians of the Jameh Mosque earned a living and what obstacles and challenges they faced. The hypothesis of the research is that the scholars and other groups claimed to be close and dependent on the site of the mosque’s endowment income, which included the school status of the school and the payment of teachers and students’ salaries, and aimed at addressing the challenge of the challenge. The livelihood helped them against the claimants. According to the findings, during the difficult years of life, the Theologues met the needs of life by taking over government jobs, propaganda, advertising, codification in the villages, creating chaos, interference with town hall and dependence on the Shari’a courts. This article has investigated the issue in a descriptive and explanatory way by using library resources and documents of governmental, private and private organizations, articles and manuscripts.

The toponyms used to name a large area in ​​the western half of Iran, from the fall of the Sassanids to the rise of the Safavids, experienced many changes in the social and political-administrative arena, and were reflected in different ways in the writings produced at this point. In Islamic historiography, these toponyms were also used alternately, and historians used them to address the geographical area they were considering. The main question of the upcoming research is how the names Jebal, Qohestan and Iraq-e Ajam appeared in various historians' writings and how they were used. The research approach of this article is based on thick description. The research findings indicate that in the opinion of Islamic historians, Jebal (approximately) was used as a common toponym for a wide area in ​​the western half of Iran in the third century. Gradually and without having a specific definition and limitation, it became popular in all kinds of historical writings and replaced the ancient toponyms of the region such as Mah and Pahle, but in the next century, due to the political developments in the region and the importance of some cities such as Ray and Isfahan, the city became central to the attitude of many Historians prevailed and did not allow Jebal to spread as a common toponym. Also, the name Qohestan, which was the Persian translation of Jebal, became popular in Persian writings at this time and added to the confusion. In the sixth century, the toponym of Iraq-e Ajam, gradually made its way in the writings of historians; But due to the flourishing of general historiography in the 8th and 9th centuries of Hijri, which were provided based on the sources of the third to the sixth century of Hijri, the toponyms of Jebal and Qohestan, while they were almost forgotten in the social and political-administrative arena, also came to life in the writings of Persian historians. They continued, of course, the historians of Egypt and the Levant were largely left out of this mess.

The Khwarazmshahids followed the Hanafi school of thought, which was also the predominant belief system among the majority of people living in their territory. What kind of policy did they pursue towards Hanafism? To answer this question, the Khwarazmshahid era was divided into five periods. Their policies in each period were evaluated on five parameters: behavior towards Hanafi people and clergy, relations with Hanafi rulers, appointment of Hanafis in political positions and establishment of religious institutes. The results show that in the period of obedience (1098-1136 A.D.) the Hanafipeople and clergy had security and welfare because of Muhammad and Atsiz to obedience for Sanjar. In the independence period (1136-1173) , the Hanafi people and clergy were attacked and insulted because of Atsiz’s arrogance towards Sanjar and Ilarsalan’s expansionism, although this hostility was political and in reality neutral. In the Empire-Establishing Period (1174-1201) the neutral policy was intensified in favor of the Shafiites following the conquest of Iraq, where the non-Hanafites were in the majority. In the Empire-Peak Period (1201-1221) because Sultan Muhammad's government wasn’t legitimized by the caliph and the non-Mutazilite Hanafites did not recognize his reign as legitimate thus the neutral policy converted at times to antagonism against Hanafites. Following the anarchy of the Post-Mongol Attack Period (1221-1231) the sultan’s sons tried to conquer part of the empire by any means necessary. Thus Qurshah and Pirshah allied themselves with Shafiites against the Hanafites but Jalal-al-Din, as the savior of Islam, implemented an Islamic unity policy and generally avoided supporting Hanafites. Since the Khwarazmshahids were mutazilites, they supported the mutazilite Hanafis in all periods except that of Jalal-al-Din. This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing a desk study methodology for data collection and analysis.

During the Sāsānid era, “Dīvān-e Sepāh” (in Arabic and Persian sources: “Dīvān al-Jūnd”, “Dīvān al-Jeyš”, “Dīvān al-Moqātala” or “Dīvān-e Sepāh”), was one of the most important organizations of the Sāsānid Empire, directing the warfare and guarding the borders of the country. Some of the experienced secretaries of this organization, who were called “Dabīr-e Sepāh”/ “Secretary of the corps” (in Arabic sources: Kātib al-Jūnd” or “Kātib al-Jeyš”), went to war with the Corps and as chroniclers/ historians, reported the war with the enemies and the actions of the fighters and the commander of the corps. They also wrote the list of spoils of war as well as the number of troops killed in the war and reported to the king. These secretaries, who during the battle, carried out correspondence between the army commander and the king or others, were also the special “eyes and ears” of the king in the army, and with their presence, the army and commanders were less likely to engage in secret activities and rebellion against the king. Thus, this study will discuss the importance of the “Dabīr-e Sepāh” in the Sāsānian bureaucracy, as well as their roles in wars, as the “eyes and ears” of the king and as event writer/ historians in the corps.

As Iran confronted Western modernity and the resulting discursive conflicts, discussing women, their identity, and their living conditions became a central topic. A wide range of discourses formed around these issues, making women a significant focus of debate. This article examines the modernist discourses on women, utilizing critical discourse analysis to explore the semantic construction of the modern woman in these discourses. It addresses the question of what the subject of the modern woman meant in the modernist discourse of the Qajar era, what ideologies dominated this discourse on women, and what position this discourse achieved in the dominant discourse of the constitutional era.The research findings indicate that the modern woman, who was formed in opposition to tradition, is constructed in the modernist discourse as a demanding and critical subject. By criticizing traditions and focusing on the core idea of equality, it seeks modern identity elements for women like those for men. This discourse has been more successful in propositions that did not explicitly oppose tradition.

This study analyzes the historical evolution of the Barzashabadi branch of the Kobrawieh dynasty in Iran during the Safavid period. This Sufi sect in the Safavid period is known as the Ẕahabiyya. The article examines the historical developments and intellectual activities of the masters of this sect in the Safavid period with a descriptive and analytical method, relying on historical sources, especially the sources related to this sect. The research approach is that the term Ḏahabīya. was not considered an appropriate name for this Sufi order until the end of the 11/17th century and the historical development of this sect is related to the end of the 11/17th century (the end of the Safavid period) and is the result of the wise activities of Muezzin Khorasani (death 1078 AH/1668 AD) and his student is Najibuddin Zargar Esfahani (about 1108 AH/1696-1696 AD). The transformations of the sect in the Safavid period and the activities of its leaders in the Safavid period are the main subject of the present research.

ظهور قدرتی ناهمگون با ساختار قدرت خلافت در اوایل سدۀ چهارم قمری، دوره‌ای با ویژگی‌های منحصربه‌فرد را برای تاریخ اسلام رقم زد. سلسلۀ آل‌بویۀ شاخۀ عراق با خصوصیاتی که برای بخش بزرگی از جامعۀ تحت امرش بیگانه می‌نمود، با پیگیری سیاست‌هایی هوشمندانه، و با استفاده از شرایط خاص حاکم بر قلمرو خلافت، توانست برای بیش از یک سده بر دستگاه خلافت مسلّط شود و تأثیر به‌سزایی بر جنبه‌های مختلف تمدن اسلامی، ازجمله تشکیلات حکومتی و پیشرفت علوم، به‌ویژه علوم دینی شیعی برجای گذارد. بازخوانی انتقادی دلایل سیاسی پایداری این سلطۀ غیرقابل پیش‌بینی، از دیدگاه جان داناهیو[1] موضوع این پژوهش است. داناهیو علی­رغم برشمردن برخی از دلایل مرتبط با ویژگی‌های ذاتی و سیاست‌های اعمال‌شده از سوی آل‌بویه، بیشتر بر شرایط خاص حاکم بر قلمرو خلافت، مقارن با به‌ قدرت رسیدن آن­ها تأکید می‌کند. در این پژوهش سعی شده است، ضمن مقایسۀ انتقادی آراء مکتوب داناهیوبا منابع نخستین و رجوع به پژوهش‌های متأخر، دیدگاه‌های متفاوتی ارائه شود. در این پژوهش مشخص شده است، تثبیت حکومت آل‌بویه باوجود ناکامی حکومت‌هایی همچون زیاریان در سلطه بر خلافت، بیش از هر چیز به خصوصیات ذاتی و سیاست‌های اعمال‌شده از سوی آن­ها مربوط است. [1] . John J. Donohue.

میرزا حسین­خان سپهسالار در حالی به منصب صدارت رسید که اوضاع اقتصادی و مالی کشور، بحرانی و دولت در آستانه ورشکستگی قرار داشت. او برای بهبودی اوضاع اقتصادی و سامان­دهی امور مالی کشور اصلاحاتی به عمل آورد. پژوهش حاضر با روش توصیفی-تحلیلی به سنجش توفیق یا عدم توفیق برنامه­ها و اصلاحات مالی سپهسالار به کمک اسناد مالی و تأثیر آن­ها بر جمع و خرج کشور خواهد پرداخت. یافته­های پژوهش نشان می­دهد میرزا حسین­خان با تقویت قدرت مرکزی، وضع قوانین و تشدید کنترل و نظارت­ بر حکام و کارگزاران دیوانی، امور اداری و مالی را به سامان آورد. همچنین اصلاحات و سیاست مالیِ انقباضی وی برای تأمین منابع مالی لازم جهت توسعۀ زیر بنایی و اجرای طرح­های بزرگ اقتصادی، با موفقیت همراه شد. بنابر اسناد مالی، دولت در پایان سال دوم صدارت میرزا حسین­خان – 1289-1290 ق- ضمن وصول مطالبات، پرداخت بدهی و بروات معوق خزانه و ایجاد توازن بین جمع و خرج، درآمد مازاد قابل­توجه­ای داشت که مبالغی از آن در خزانه پس انداز شد.

أنساب الأشراف تألیف احمد بن­یحیی بلاذری (د. 279ق) دربردارنده روایت­های پرشمار و متنوعی دربارۀ علی بن­ابی­طالب(ع) است که چشم­پوشی از آن­ها در بررسی تاریخ دوران زندگانی آن حضرت ممکن نیست. با­وجود­این، اهمیت روایت­های تاریخی این کتاب به طرز شایسته­ای مورد توجه مورخان و محققان قرار نگرفته است. در مقاله حاضر تلاش شده است تا اهمیت اخبار و روایات أنساب الأشراف دربارۀ امام علی (ع) از طریق مقایسه آن با مهم­ترین منابع تاریخی قبل و بعد از آن معلوم گردد. غلبه نداشتن رویکرد دینی نزد بلاذری در قیاس با نویسندگانی چون ابن­سعد و طبری سبب شده است تا او تصویر جامع­تری از وقایعی همچون سقیفه، شورای جانشینی عمر، قتل عثمان و نبرد جمل ارائه دهد و اخبار او دربارۀ علی بن­ابی­طالب(ع) کامل­تر باشد. همچنین تعلق خاطر او به حکومت عباسیان سبب گزینش روایت­هایی در راستای تعامل عباس عموی پیامبر با علی بن­ابی­طالب(ع) شده است.

بنابر ­اهمیت مفهوم اصالت در حفاظت و مرمت در این پژوهش سعی شده است اصالت و سایر مفاهیم مرتبط با آن (ارزش، تمامیت، نیت خالق اثر) در تاریخ حفاظت و مرمت بررسی گردد. مقاله حاضر از طریق بازخوانی و واکاوی تاریخ حفاظت و مرمت از یک‌سو و دیدگاه‌های صاحب‌نظران از سوی دیگر، با بهره­گیری از روش تحقیق کیفی و راهبرد تحلیل محتوا، در پی بازشناخت اصالت و تعیین رویکردهای مختلف به آن در طول تاریخ حفاظت و مرمت است. مطالعه مفاهیم ارزش، اصالت، تمامیت، نیت هنرمند و رویکرد حفاظتی _ مرمتی در آثار تاریخی در دوره­های زمانی گوناگون نشان می­دهد کـه دیـدگاه­های فلسفی، مکاتب فکری و رویدادهای هر دوره، ارزش­های مطرح‌شده در آثار تاریخی و میراث فرهنگی را دگرگون ساخته ­و به‌طور غیرمستقیم بر اصالت، تمامیت، نیت هنرمند خالق اثر و درنهایت رویکرد حفاظتی _ مرمتی تأثیر گذاشته است.

این مقاله بر آن است تا با معرّفی اثری کمتر شناخته‌شده به نام کنزالمعارف که به زبان فارسی و در مرکز ایران نوشته شده است، اهمیّت آن را در شناخت بیشتر و بهتر خاندان برمکیان نشان دهد. مؤلّف این کتاب که به تمامی به آل برمک و شرح احوال افراد مهم آن خاندان اختصاص یافته، عبدالجلیل ‌بن یحیی ‌بن عبدالجلیل ‌بن محمّد ‌بن عبدالباقی یزدی است که نوشتن آن را در سال 762ق آغاز و پس از اتمام، کتاب را به شاه شجاع مظفّری تقدیم کرده است. از این کتاب سه نسخه شناخته شده که دو نسخۀ کهن‌تر با شماره‌های 1342 و 1351 در کتابخانۀ ملّی فرانسه نگهداری می‌شوند و به ترتیب فاقد تاریخ کتابت و مورّخ 926ق هستند. نسخۀ سوم متعلّق به کتابخانۀ عارف حکمت مدینه است که در سدۀ 12ق کتابت شده است. در این مقاله ضمن معرّفی نویسنده، کتاب و نسخه‌های اثر، ارتباط آن با کتاب‌هایی که به­طور اختصاصی دربارۀ برمکیان نوشته شده و نیز با حکایت‌هایی که دربارۀ این خاندان در کتاب‌های تاریخی و ادبی آمده است، بررسی و از این رهگذر وجوه مزیّت و اهمیّت این اثر در شناخت برمکیان نسبت به دیگر آثار نشان داده شده است.

این پژوهش به بررسی مناسبات تجاری بین دولت رسولیان (حک: 626-858ق) در یمن و خلیج­فارس و همچنین بیان تاریخچه‌ای از قدرت و حکومت رسولیان پرداخته است. به نظر می‌رسد که به سبب ماهیت تجاری حکومت رسولیان و اتکای دولت بنی‌رسول به درآمدهای تجاری از یک­سو و جایگاه خلیج‌فارس در تجارت بین شرق و غرب از سوی دیگر، بررسی مناسبات روابط بین دولت رسولیان و بنادر خلیج­فارس می­تواند فصل جدیدی در مطالعه تاریخ خلیج فارس بگشاید. یافته‌های این پژوهش نیز نشان می‌دهد که دولت رسولیان یک دولت تجاری بوده، بازرگانی در آن دولت به­ویژه با کرانه‌ها و جزایر خلیج‌فارس از اهمیت خاصی برخوردار بوده است و خلیج­فارس یکی از مقصدهای مهم بازرگانی بین‌المللی برای رسولیان محسوب می­شد. در این پژوهش با بهره‌گیری از منابع کتابخانه‌ای و با روش توصیفی- تحلیلی به بررسی موضوع پرداخته شده است.

W artykule przedstawiono analizę funkcjonowania społecznej opieki nad zabytkami w Gdyni po 2003 r. Kilkanaście lat doświadczenia samorządu lokalnego oraz czas, jaki upłynął od wejścia w życie obowiązujących regulacji związanych z instytucją społecznych opiekunów zabytków, pozwalają na sformułowanie wniosków i pokazanie wad oraz zalet różnych rozwiązań. W artykule przedstawiono doświadczenia Biura Miejskiego Konserwatora Zabytków w Gdyni ze współpracy, zarówno ze społecznymi opiekunami zabytków, jak i z lokalnymi stowarzyszeniami zajmującymi się ochroną dziedzictwa. Z doświadczeń autorów wynika jednoznacznie, że przepisy ustawy o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, regulujące działalność społecznych opiekunów zabytków są anachroniczne i w praktyce mają minimalny wpływ na ochronę zabytków. Natomiast rozwinęła i rozwija się działalność społeczna aktywnych mieszkańców z wykorzystaniem stowarzyszeń i innych form kolektywnego współdziałania. Dużą rolę odgrywają obecnie portale internetowe, a zwłaszcza media społecznościowe, które ułatwiają komunikację i pozwalają szybko reagować. Widoczne jest ogromne zainteresowanie społeczne ochroną zabytków i spora aktywność mieszkańców w tym zakresie. W ocenie autorów należy skorzystać z nowych doświadczeń i całkowicie przeformułować zasady współpracy organów ochrony zabytków ze społeczeństwem. Taka współpraca może przynieść korzystne efekty.

The author's reflections are based on her experience when working as the Regional Conservator of Historic Monuments in the Małopolska Region. Selected provisions of the Act on the Protection and Care of Historic Monuments will be juxtaposed with actual cases of historic buildings, in order to illustrate how the protection system works in practice. The conclusions will indicate courses of action which, often going beyond the Act, show that certain areas of activity within which we transform our surroundings are slipping away out of the constitutional - and universal - duty to uphold our heritage. Also, the conclusions will specify the things that need to be addressed in the protection system, as its emphasis has been overly shifted to antagonisms instead of cooperation.

In the context of an increasing social interest in cultural heritage and, consequently, a wide range of increasingly diversified grassroots activities related to the protection of heritage objects and spaces, there is a growing need for identifying the dimensions of social impact on cultural resources. The analysis of this issue in this article is based on the case of a group of public benefit organizations which are engaged in protecting heritage objects and spaces. As a result, the article identifies a group of factors which represent organizations’ impact in this area, giving attention to the perspective of target heritage objects and spaces, their surroundings and social and economic environment, public authorities and institutions, indirect beneficiaries, as well as considering the criterion of the time of impact (immediate, deferred and potential effects). The analysis is based on desk research, including a literature review, expert analyses, and with regard to empirical studies – reports prepared by public benefit organizations, the content of their websites and social media.

Artykuł zarysowuje źródła potrzeby ochrony dziedzictwa i zarys ram prawnych, w których realizowana jest społecznie niezbędna ochrona zabytków oraz opieka nad zabytkami w Polsce. Przedstawiono rolę instytucji Społecznego Opiekuna Zabytków w polskim systemie. Bazując na dostępnych badaniach, opisano wybrane wyzwania, które stoją przed społeczną opieką nad zabytkami. Autorzy, na podstawie własnych doświadczeń, uzupełnili listę problemów o uwagi wynikające z dotychczasowej działalności w społecznej opiece nad zabytkami oraz doświadczenia w badaniu dziedzictwa materialnego. Przeprowadzona analiza współpracy między wybranymi instytucjami zajmującymi się ochroną zabytków w Łodzi pozwoliła poszerzyć katalog wyzwań. Wnioski pozwoliły sformułować propozycje zmian, które mogłyby częściowo odpowiadać na niektóre zidentyfikowane problemy. Wskazano ponadto, że dalsza dyskusja nad zmianami w systemie ochrony zabytków jest konieczna, a jej całościowy i interdyscyplinarny charakter może wzmocnić skuteczność reform.

Cmentarze ludności żydowskiej to niknący element krajobrazu kulturowego. Ze względu na intensywne działania dewastacyjne prowadzone w latach 1939–1945 oraz trudne losy powojenne, we współczesnych granicach Polski zachowało się nieco ponad 2000 cmentarzy. Ich stan jest zróżnicowany – od uporządkowanych i dostępnych, po całkowicie pozbawione widocznych zarysów w terenie. Współcześnie podejmowane są liczne inicjatywy, których celem jest uporządkowanie cmentarzy, odnalezienie i renowacja macew oraz odpowiednie upamiętnienie miejsc pochówku i samych zmarłych. Szansą na przetrwanie, a przede wszystkim na przywrócenie pamięci o cmentarzach żydowskich są lokalne społeczności zaangażowane w przywracanie pamięci o swoich regionach. Istotną rolę w procesie dbania o ten element dziedzictwa kulturowego odgrywają społeczni opiekunowie zabytków – osoby podejmujące działania, których celem jest zachowanie wartości zabytków, dbanie i utrzymywanie ich w możliwie najlepszym stanie. Są to osoby głęboko zaangażowane i przeświadczone o wartościach nie tylko historycznych, lecz również społeczno-sentymentalnych tych miejsc. Chęć przywrócenia pamięci dotyczy nie tylko samych cmentarzy, lecz również dawnej społeczności żydowskiej, która niegdyś była częścią społeczności mieszkańców.

Idea społecznej opieki nad zabytkami zapisała się chlubnie na kartach historii naszego kraju, jak również w powojennej historii ochrony zabytków na Ziemi Lubuskiej, czego przykłady sięgają lat 60. XX w. Dzięki temu wiele zabytków rezydencjonalnych na terenach przyłączonych do Polski po 1945 r., narażonych na akty wandalizmu i zniszczenie, zostało zabezpieczonych do czasu podjęcia prac remontowych, co umożliwiło ich przetrwanie do naszych czasów. Zaangażowanie społeczne i troska o dziedzictwo kulturowe małych ojczyzn, szczególnie widoczne od końca lat 90. XX w., stanowi potencjał, który należy wykorzystać i nadać mu należną rangę. Wojewódzcy konserwatorzy zabytków wspierają działania społeczników na wielu płaszczyznach i współpracują z nimi w trosce o zabytki. Znamy liczne przykłady inicjatyw, które zaowocowały przywróceniem wielu zabytków do dobrego stanu, należy więc rozpowszechniać stosowanie dobrych praktyk w tym zakresie. Wymaga to wprowadzenia rozwiązań systemowych, które poszerzą pola działania organizacji społecznych i osób zaangażowanych w opiekę nad zabytkami, określą zasady finansowania i współpracy ze służbami konserwatorskimi.

Badania społeczne w zakresie ochrony dziedzictwa kulturalnego mogą stanowić nieocenione wsparcie dla specjalistów. Ankietowanie pozwala określić przywiązanie do lokalnego dziedzictwa, wskazanie działań, które społeczność aprobuje, a także ocenę zaangażowania w wykorzystaniu lokalnego potencjału. Potencjał wykorzystania badań społecznych jako dodatkowe narzędzie w ochronie zabytków został przedstawiony na podstawie wyników ankiety dotyczącej oceny dziedzictwa Mościc — modernistycznej dzielnicy Tarnowa, która powstała jako autonomiczna miejscowość skupiona wokół budowanej od 1927 roku Państwowej Fabryki Zakładów Azotowych. Badanie miało na celu określić społeczne postrzeganie wartości dziedzictwa tarnowskiej dzielnicy Mościce przez ocenę poszczególnych obiektów i instytucji, świadomości na temat prawnych form ochrony i opieki nad jej zabytkami oraz wskazania organizacji zajmujących się danymi zagadnieniami, a także możliwości jej rewitalizacji, przede wszystkim przez pryzmat odczuć i potrzeb lokalnej społeczności. Ankietę przeprowadzono za pomocą metody CAWI. Uwzględnianie opinii społecznych może być nie tylko formalnością, ale źródłem wiedzy pozwalającym na rozpoznanie nastrojów lokalnych społeczności, od których często zależy kwestia zaangażowania i rozwoju procesu ochrony i opieki nad zabytkami. Partycypacja osób bez wiedzy i doświadczenia w zakresie ochrony zabytków nie powinna wykluczać wzięcia pod uwagę ich pomysłów i spostrzeżeń.

In the reality of private properties embedded in a free market economy, the very fact of providing an administrative protection to the building of special value can be problematic. The possibilities of challenging and revoking such decisions are often used by property owners. Conflicts between the conservator – a state administration official trying to provide legal protection to a monument – and the owner – an investor who pushes to achieve the intended investment goal regardless of the cultural value of the place – are extremely strong. It is worth noting, however, that according to the provisions of Article 5 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, the direct stakeholder of the preservation of the cultural heritage is the entire society. Therefore, it is worth analysing whether public opinion is considered during conflict situations related to the protection of built heritage. To this end, a case study was conducted, that considered a conflict situation occurring during the procedure of entering the former tender building (roundhouse) into the Register of Immovable Monuments of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship.

Research on Sufism in Kurdistan has mainly examined the history of Sufi Tariqas separately and detached from their communication space; While due to the influence of these Tariqa’s relations on the social history of Kurdistan, it is also necessary to study the various connections between the sheikhs and their followers. In the present study, the question of what the relations between the Naqshbandiyya and the Qadiriyy were like in the Kurdish areas after Mawlana Khalid Shahrazuri (1242-1193 AH) was answered .The results of the research - which was carried out using the library method - show that after the initial tensions and confrontations, the relations between these two Tariqas moved towards cooperation and companionship; After some time, the Naqshbandi elders, taking into account the presence and influence of the Qadiris in Kurdish society and in order to manage the situation of their followers, made changes in some customs of the Tariqat and sometimes brought them closer to the Qadiri method. In addition, many relationships were forged between the sheikhs of the two Tariqas, such as Sufi-based relationships, bonds of friendship and family ties. They also participated in each other's rituals and were connected in some scientific and cultural fields. Their interaction progressed to the point where the Naqshbandi sheikhs, influenced by their previous heritage and considering the situation of the Kurdish society, took over the leadership of some Qadiri disciples and thus started a new chapter of Tariqa in Kurdistan.

The ideas of European geographers and cartographers about the world around them were generally taken from the classical texts of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as the books of the Testament and the Christian commentators, which meant that their main ideas about distant parts of the world were based on the aforementioned texts. Both the maps of Mapamandi and the maps in the classical Roman tradition, which was also followed in the Middle Ages, were based on the information available in the testaments and classical texts. With the beginning of the 12th and 13th centuries AD and the numerous travels of Europeans to the Islamic East, including Iran, the classical ideas of Europe took the path of modernity and largely left their unreal form and took the form of reality. Therefore, the perception the East, especially Iran, by Europeans underwent changes and developments over time caused by various factors in each period of time. In the meantime, the numerous travels of the Europeans had a considerable influence on the change in the cartographers' perspective and information. The study of the evolution of the Europeans' view of Iran and Iranians over the centuries through the medieval maps is a problem that has not yet received attention. Therefore, it is important to examine how the medieval maps - which depicted the dominant ideas of medieval European society - presented Iran in different periods. It should be noted that the author of this article attempts to use a descriptive-analytical approach to express that before the travels of the European world travelers, the classical idea of ​​Iran prevailed in the medieval maps, and that in the meantime, Marco Polo's travels had a significant impact on the change and transformation of this view.