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マレーグマ（Helarctos malayanus）は，IUCNのレッドリストでは絶滅危惧II類（VU）に指定されている。絶滅危惧種の保全には，生息域内での生態・行動把握に加えて，動物園などでの生息域外保全も重要である。その際，飼育環境を自然生息地に近づけ，動物のもつ野生本来の行動を発現できるエンリッチメントが大切となってくる。しかし，飼育下マレーグマでエンリッチメントが行われている前例は世界でも少なく，国内では行われた報告がない。また過去にマレーグマにおいて効果的とされた採食エンリッチメントは広い放飼場を必要とする。そこで本研究は，飼育下マレーグマにおいて限られた空間で継続的な効果を望める採食エンリッチメントを考案することを目的とした。本研究は2つの実験を甲府市遊亀公園附属動物園（以下：甲府）と豊橋総合動植物公園（以下：豊橋）にて行った。実験1はブイ，丸太の2種類のエンリッチメントを設置し，それぞれの効果を検証した。実験2はブイを定期的に移動させることでエンリッチメントの効果持続を試みた。実験1より甲府で平均17.8%（最大27.1%），豊橋で平均24.3%（最大32.8%）の採食行動の増加と，甲府で平均42.0%（最大72.9%），豊橋で平均18.2%（最大25.7%）の常同行動の減少が確認できた。ブイ，丸太ともに効果が確認できたことに加え，野生下に類似した行動が発現し，エンリッチメントとして優れていると考えられる。しかし，丸太の効果は一時的なものであった。また，ブイを移動させることによって，エンリッチメントの効果を6ヶ月にわたる5回の調査期間全てで確認できた。さらに，給餌直後に限らず，給餌から最大7時間後の採食が確認できたことから，ブイの効果は1日を通してみられた。よって，ブイを定期的に移動させることで，限られた空間の中で継続的な効果のあるエンリッチメントを考案することができた。, Sun bears (Helarctos malayanus), the world’s smallest bear, have been listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list since 2017. For such endangered species, ex-situ conservation plays a vital role, and introducing enrichment in captive environment is important in prompting natural behaviors. However, only a few enrichment studies have been done on this species, and none in Japan. An enrichment proven to be effective for sun bears in a study done in Germany requires big outdoor enclosures that is difficult to recreate in most zoos. This study devises a new feeding enrichment for sun bears, with minimal space and long-lasting effects. Two experiments were done. In experiment 1, a log filled with honey and a buoy with a small hole were placed as a feeding enrichment, and the effects were measured. In experiment 2, to avoid habituation and to achieve prolonged effect, the buoy was moved after each 3-day observation period. The experiment was done in Yuki Park Zoo (Kofu), and Toyohashi Zoo and Botanical Park (Toyohashi). In experiment 1, foraging increased by an average of 17.8% in Kofu, and 24.3% in Toyohashi. Pacing declined by an average of 42.0% in Kofu, and 18.2% in Toyohashi. Both log and buoy were proven to be effective in increasing foraging activity and decreasing pacing. Moreover, in using the enrichment, behaviors such as digging and standing up using both hands to forage was seen, which resembles those seen in wild sun bears. However, the log’s effect was temporary. In experiment 2, by moving the buoy, decline of pacing and increase in foraging was seen over time, therefore, achieving prolonged effect. Foraging activity was also seen 7 hours after the enrichment was placed, indicating that this feeding enrichment’s effect lasts throughout the day. In conclusion, by moving the buoy regularly, this study developed an effective long-term feeding enrichment within the minimal space.

Although tropical forests are among the most species-rich ecosystems on earth, 42% of mammal species in tropical forests are endangered because of overhunting and/or unsustainable exploitation. Camera-trap surveys have shown that natural saltlicks can be used to determine mammalian fauna, especially medium to large endangered species in tropical forests; establishment of camera traps, however, is time and effort intensive. Furthermore, the photographic range and detectable size of species are often restricted. Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is a powerful approach that might provide a better way to study terrestrial animals in tropical forests. In this study, we examined whether eDNA from natural saltlicks comprehensively represented species composition in a Bornean tropical forest. We collected 100–150-mL water samples from natural saltlicks in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. We constructed amplicon libraries for MiSeq sequencing using eDNA extracted from the water samples. Six endangered species were detected using this method, including Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), Bornean banteng (Bos javanicus lowi), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) and bearded pig (Sus barbatus). However, most small and minor species were not detected, with low sequence identity (80–96%). Therefore, we propose that more species of tropical forest mammals should have their sequences deposited in DNA databases. This study is the first to report the endangered mammals of a tropical forest detected using eDNA from natural saltlicks.

Few studies have been done on natural mineral licks visitation on bat fauna, particularly in Borneo and Southeast Asia in general. Little is known about the assemblage of bats using mineral licks and this study was done to determine assemblage structure of Palaeotropical bats at six established mineral licks in Deramakot and Tangkulap Forest Reserve, Sabah. The main findings of the present study revealed that Palaeotropical frugivorous bats were using mineral licks, observed through their behaviour of drinking from mineral licks, supported by their high species occurrences at mineral licks and higher concentration of water insoluble soil tracer elements, Al and Si detected in their faeces in comparison with non-visitor bats. The five species of bats Macroglos susminimus (n=3), Balionycteris maculata (n=2), Cynopterus brachyotis (n=1), Megaerops ecaudatus (n=2) and Penthetor lucasii n=(1) were observed drinking from mineral licks. Four species of frugivorous bats (M. minimus, B. maculata, C. brachyotis and P. lucasii) frequently occurred at all six sites at mineral licks. In addition, there were higher enrichment Al and Si in M. minimus faeces (n=5) in comparison with non-visitor bats suggesting that frugivorous bats got those elements from ingestion of mineral lick muddy water.

The Critically Endangered tamaraw Bubalus mindorensis is endemic to Mindoro Island, Philippines, and little is known of its ecology. During 2006–2011 we used community-based monitoring to examine the population status and ecology of tamaraw in the species’ core habitat of Mount Iglit–Baco National Park. Each year, for 5 consecutive days at the end of the dry season, trained local volunteers and rangers or project staff were allocated to 18 vantage points in the study area (c. 160 km2). Tamaraw were categorized as adult (> 5 years), juvenile (2–5 years) or calf (

Understanding a species’ foraging habits and preferences is fundamental to understanding its overall ecology and essential for its management and conservation. In general, large herbivores are classified as either grazers, browsers , or mixed feeders , and a species’ diet preference is related to its body mass and digestive trait syndrome. Here, we analyze feeding strategies of large herbivores in South and Southeast Asia (SSEA) as related to their body mass and digestive trait syndromes. Overall, our results are similar to patterns observed on other continents. The majority of large herbivore species in SSEA are mixed feeders. Browsers and frugivores dominate the smallest body mass classes, while bulk feeders , predominantly grazers, dominate the largest body mass classes. There is an absence of hindgut fermenters in the lower body mass classes, and an absence of ruminants in the megaherbivore class (>1000 kg). Cervids in SSEA do not get as large as Bovids, and in both Cervids and Bovids the greatest number of species are found in the smaller body mass classes. Although large herbivores in SSEA occur across a wide range of different habitat types, there are discernible habitat associations with different groups of species. While this chapter sheds light on this important facet of large herbivore ecology in the region, there remains an acute lack of data on the foraging ecology of the majority of species in SSEA.

Fecal DNA analysis is a useful tool for the investigation of endangered species. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro but knowledge of its genetic and ecological information is limited. In this study, we developed a species identification method for tamaraw by fecal DNA analysis. Eighteen feces presumed to be from tamaraw were collected in Mount Iglit-Baco National Park and species-known feces from domestic buffaloes and cattle were obtained from a farm. Additionally, one species-unknown fecal sample was obtained in Mount Aruyan Preserve, where the sighting of tamaraw has not been reported in recent years. Based on DNA sequence data previously reported, the genus Bubalus- and tamaraw-specific primers for PCR of cytochrome b gene were newly designed. The Bubalus-specific primer yielded a 976 bp fragment of cytochrome b for all fecal samples from tamaraw and domestic buffaloes, but not for cattle, whereas the tamaraw-specific primer yielded a 582 bp fragment for all tamaraw fecal samples and for one of the four domestic buffalo samples. PCR-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis of the 976 bp PCR fragment with AvrII or BsaXI provided distinct differences between tamaraw and domestic buffalo. PCR-RFLP analysis also showed that the species-unknown sample obtained in Mount Aruyan Preserve, originates from tamaraw.

Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is a wild water buffalo endemic to the island of Mindoro, Philippines. It is one of the world’s critically endangered species, and only three mountainous areas have confirmed tamaraw populations. One of the habitats, Mt. Aruyan, is inhabited by hundreds number of indigenous peoples (Mangyan) who live in clusters of villages. To understand the present status of the tamaraw in Mt. Aruyan, especially human-tamaraw conflicts, we conducted a field survey by camera trap, route censuses, and interviews with the Mangyan. One adult male was identified by camera trap and some individuals were identified by signs. Tamaraw habitat and the domiciles of the Mangyan completely overlap, and slash-and-burn farming by the Mangyan has significantly reduced tamaraw habitat. Moreover, outsiders poaching with guns directly contributed to the decline of tamaraw population. These results indicate that the conservation of tamaraw in the Mt. Aruyan habitat is extremely difficult. Therefore, conservation in other habitats is considered a higher priority.

We have identified three members of the heat shock protein (HSP) 70 family from the Japanese quail, Coturnix japonica. The coding regions of the genes, CjHSPA2, CjHSPA5 and CjHSPA8, exhibit more than 96% similarity to related genes in the chicken, GgHSP70, GgHSPA5 and GgHSC70. The putative proteins encoded by the quail genes contain motifs considered essential for HSP70 family members. In addition, the predicted proteins are more similar to HSPA2, HSPA5, and HSPA8 proteins from vertebrates than they are to other members of the HSP70 family. As is true for orthologs from chicken and mammals, the quail genomic loci consist of a single exon (CjHSPA2) or eight exons (CjHSPA5 and CjHSPA8). The promoter regions of the genes also contain conserved motifs and are similar in structure to promoter regions of related genes in other species. Furthermore, gene order in the regions surrounding the quail HSP70 has been preserved, providing evidence that the genomic regions are orthologous to HSP70-containing regions in the chicken genome. One of the quail HSP70-related genes, CjHSPA2, exhibited a robust response to heat shock treatment and transcription of CjHSPA8 mRNA was weakly induced by heat treatment. Taken together, the data suggest that CjHSPA2, CjHSPA5 and CjHSPA8 encode orthologs of HSPA2, HSPA5 and HSPA8 with the notable difference that CjHSPA2 and CjHSPA8 are heat shock-inducible genes, whereas HSPA2 and HSPA8 are constitutively expressed in a heat shock-independent manner.

In pursuance of economic growth and development, logging has exhausted the natural timber resource in the tropical rainforest of Sabah, Malaysia. Realizing the forest depletion, the Sabah Forestry Department, with technical support from the German Agency for Technical Cooperation, begun developing a management system with the intent of managing all commercial forest reserves in a way that mimics natural processes for sustainable production of low volume, high quality, and high priced timber products in 1989. As dictated by a forest management plan based on forest zoning, about 51,000 ha of the entire area is set aside for log production and 4,000 ha for conservation in Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia. This Forest Management Plan has served as the blueprint for operational work and biodiversity conservation in Deramakot to the present. A strict protection area is set aside for biodiversity conservation within the reserve. A reduced-impact logging system is being employed for harvesting with minimal impacts on the physical environment. Deramakot Forest Reserve was certified as “well managed” by an international certification body, the Forest Stewardship Council, in 1997 and is the first natural forest reserve in Southeast Asia managed in accordance with sustainable forestry principles. In addition to providing a "green premium," certification provides easier market access, evidence of legality, multi-stakeholder participation, conservation of biodiversity and best forest management practices, particularly reduced-impact logging techniques. Deramakot Forest Reserve is the flagship of the Sabah Forestry Department and serves as a symbol of what can be achieved with political support and institutional commitment.

Seasonal and daily use of natural licks by sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) was examined with camera traps in the Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. The visitation frequency by females was significantly higher in the wet season (October to March) than in the dry season (April to September) (0.277/day and 0.120/day, respectively), while that by males was not significantly different between seasons (0.190/day and 0.138/day, respectively). Our results imply that the increased female visitation frequency in the wet season reflects the peak of their physical demands (e.g., lactation). The visitation frequency in the dark period (1800 h - 0600 h) was significantly higher than that in the light period (0600 h - 1800 h) (85% and 15%, respectively). Sambar deer are generally assumed to forage at night, and the utilisation of natural licks corresponded to their foraging habits. This study suggests that, for sambar deer, natural licks are among the most important habitats not only for daily sustenance but also for reproductive support.

Wildlife Department of Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, MalaysiaStudy on the interaction between elephants and plantshad been conducted in Africa (Laws 1970; Wing andBuss 1970) and South Asia (Mueller-Dombois 1972;Sukumar 1989). Loxodonta africana, caused seriousdamage to trees, particularly to the Acacia spp., Baobab(Adansonia digitata), and Marula (Sclerocarya birrea)(Buechner and Dawkins 1961; Weyerhaeuser 1985;Ruess and Halter 1990; Barnes et al. 1994; Tchamba1995; Gadd 2002), while Loxodonta cyclotis has beenassumed to contribute to the complexity of the forest byspreading seed and maintaining open areas (Short 1981).However other studies in South Asia have shown thatElephas maximus did not cause serious damage to trees.Only a few literatures have been published in SoutheastAsia (Khan 1977). Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) is agenus of approximately 280 species, distributed fromWest Africa to the south Pacific islands, with the centerof diversity in New Guinea and Borneo (Whitmore1969). Although Macaranga was listed as one of thefoods of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in theMalay Peninsula (Khan 1977), little is known about thedamage they cause on the trees. The Elephas maximusis one of the largest populations of Asian elephants inBorneo (Payne and Andau 1991). To understand utili-zation of Macaranga trees by the Asian elephant, weinvestigated their foraging behavior in DeramakotForest Reserve, Sabah, Borneo.

Mouse deer is known as the smallest and one of the most primitive ruminants. The lesser and the greater mouse deer originated in three different parts of Malaysia were examined for cytogenetic study. The chromosome number of the mouse deer was 2n=32, consisted of 15 metacentric autosome pairs and X and Y sex chromosome pair. G-, R-band revealed polymorphisms of sex chromosomes among the mouse deer from different origins. X chro- mosome varied in length of short arm between the lesser and the greater mouse deer. Y chromosome showed poly- morphisms not only between the lesser and the greater mouse deer, but also among the lesser mouse deer from dif- ferent origins. The 18S-28S rRNA genes (18S-28S rDNA) were localized only in the X and Y chromosomes in both lesser and greater mouse deer by the Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method. The hybridization signals of 18S-28S rDNA showed polymorphisms not only in size, but also in their distribution patterns on the sex chromo- somes. In addition to the general banding methods, the FISH analysis determined that the greater mouse deer from Tioman island would be remarkably different from the lesser mouse deer. The cytogenetic observations investigated in this study could be informative to characterize the lesser and the greater mouse deer. And it is also suggested that the chromosomal change would reflect that the relationship between the geographic distribution and speciation among the mouse deer.

Activities and habitat use of lesser mouse-deer (Tragulus javanicus), a common but poorly studied ruminant native to lowland tropical forests of Southeast Asia, were investigated by full-day radiotracking and direct visual observations in the Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Sabah, Borneo. The mouse-deer was thought to be nocturnal, but diurnal distance moved per hour and behaviors observed directly in wild mouse-deer indicated that they were mainly active during the day and rested at night. Active individuals foraging or moving from shelter to shelter were mainly observed during the day, and inactive individuals resting on open forest floor were mainly observed during the night. Captive mouse-deer observed in a farm enclosure (1.5 ha in size) also showed activities similar to those observed in the forest. Radiotracking for 24 h revealed that mouse-deer significantly preferred crown-gap areas with dense undergrowth of creeping bamboo (Dinochloa) during the day but that they tended to move to the higher and drier ridge areas at night. These results indicated that mouse-deer used crown-gap areas as foraging sites and ridge areas as resting sites. Our results strongly suggest that mouse-deer use food resources in gap areas in tropical forests. Key words: activity, Borneo, gap, habitat use, home range, mouse-deer, Tragulidae, Tragulus javanicus, tropical forest

Phylogenetic relationships among three subspecies of banteng, Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus in mainland Southeast Asia, Javan banteng Bos javanicus javanicus in Java, and Bornean banteng Bos javanicus lowi in Borneo, and the presence/absence of interbreeding between wild Bornean banteng and domestic cattle in Sabah, Malaysia, were investigated by partial sequences of cytochrome b and D-loop of mitochondrial DNA. The results show that genetic distance of the Bornean banteng are relatively close to the gaur Bos gaurus/gayal Bos frontalis (the cytochrome b, 0.004–0.025; the D-loop, 0.012–0.021) followed by Burma banteng (the cytochrome b, 0.027–0.035; the D-loop, 0.040–0.045), and kouprey Bos sauveli (the cytochrome b, 0.031–0.035; the D-loop, 0.037–0.042). There are much greater distances between Bornean banteng and domestic cattle, Bos taurus and Bos indicus (the cytochrome b, 0.059–0.076; the D-loop, 0.081–0.090). These results suggest that the Bornean banteng diverged genetically from other banteng subspecies and that the wild Bornean banteng from this study are pure strain and have high conservation value.

Here we report the complete mitochondrial genome of the Bornean banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Cetartiodactyla, Bovidae), which was determined using next-generation sequencing. The mitochondrial genome is 16,344 bp in length containing 13 protein-coding genes, 21 tRNAs and 2 rRNAs. It shows the typical pattern of bovine mitochondrial arrangement. Phylogenetic tree analysis of complete mtDNA sequences showed that Bornean banteng is more closely related to gaur than to other banteng subspecies. Divergence dating indicated that Bornean banteng and gaur diverged from their common ancestor approximately 5.03 million years ago. These results suggest that Bornean banteng might be a distinct species in need of conservation.

Tropical production forests, although degraded, function as refuges for large mammals in Southeast Asia (Alcala et al. 2004; Ancrenaz et al. 2005; Iskandar et al. 2006; Venter et al. 2009) because strictly protected parks are rather limited in area. For example, in Sabah, Malaysia, 47 % of total land area remained forested in 2008, of which the majority was logged-over production forests (Sabah Forestry Department 2009). Consequently, more than 60 % of orangutans living in the state are found in such degraded production forests (Ancrenaz et al. 2005), clearly suggesting the importance of production forests as a habitat to maintain viable populations of critically endangered orangutans; this is also applicable to other endangered large mammals (see Chap. 5). Therefore, management of modern production forests needs special attention to conserve viable populations of endangered mammals. Conservation strategies need to be incorporated to sustainable management planning, such as establishing conservation areas within or adjacent to the production forests (Lynam et al. 2007).

The mastication muscles were examined in the lesser (Tragulus javanicus) and greater mouse deer (Tragulus napu) to clarify the form of the mastication muscles in these primitive artiodactyls. The M. masseter was well-developed in both species, however the attachment area of its origin was not confirmed in the rostral facial part. The masseter bundles were not observed on the lateral side of the maxilla bone, and their origin was restricted to the zygomatic arch area. This suggests that the M. masseter may not act as a motor raising the mandible rostro-dorsally, but pull the insertion vertically unlike the highly derived grazer of Bovidae. The Crista temporalis was weak and the M. temporalis was thin in the mouse deer, and this indicates that the M. temporalis may not be important in the mastication in the primitive artiodactyls. These findings suggest that the browser such as mouse deer has been adapted for the feeding on soft leaves, and functional-morphologically different in mastication strategy from the grazer such as developed Bovidae species. The architecture of the mastication muscles was not different between the two species. However, in the muscle weight ratios per body weight, the M. temporalis and the M. digastricus were significantly smaller in greater mouse deer than in lesser mouse deer.

多摩川源流域山梨県小菅村の奥山2地域と里山2地域の計4地域において,2008年4月から12月までの9ケ月間,6台のセンサーカメラによって,げっ歯目と翼手目を除く中大型哺乳類相の調査を実施した(1,130カメラ日)。その結果,11種の中大型哺乳類が確認され,撮影頻度(100カメラ日あたりの撮影枚数)が高い種は,上位からニホンジカ(Cervus nippon ; 12.9),イノシシ(Sus scrofa ; 5.4),テン(Martes melampus ; 4.5),ニホンザル(Macaca fuscata ; 3.3),そしてタヌキ(Nyctereutes procyonoides ; 3.1)であった。1位のニホンジカの撮影頻度の割合(32.7%)は,2位のイノシシ(13.7%)に比べ2.4倍高く,4地域すべてにおいて相対的に高い値を示した。また,調査4地域において,対象種の撮影頻度の合計が最も高い傾向を示したのは,湧水域を対象とした奥山地域B(120.2 ; 8種)で,続いて里山地域A(46.0 ; 9種),里山地域B(44.5 ; 10種),奥山地域A(17.3 ; 10種)の順であった。湧水域の撮影頻度の高さは,この地域の個体数あるいは利用頻度の高さを反映したものであり,この地域が野生生物管理にとって鍵となる環境であることが示唆された。, Census of the middle to large mammalian species except for rodents and Chiroptera was conducted by 6 camera-traps at 2 areas of a secluded mountain and 2 areas near villages in a total of 4 areas of Kosuge, Yamanashi, central Japan for 9 months from April to December 2008 (1,130 camera-day). The 11 species were photographed and compared with the photographed frequency (number of photographs per 100 days). The top five species were the sika deer (Cervus nippon ; 12.9), followed by the wild boar (Sus scrofa ; 5.4), the Japanese martin (Martes melampus ; 4.5), the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata ; 3.2), and the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides ; 3.1). The rate of photographed frequency of the sika deer (32.7%) was 2.4 times higher than that of the wild boar (13.7%). Between 4 areas the sum of photographed frequency of focal species was the highest in the area of secluded mountain A containing spring water (120.2 ; 8 species), followed by the area near the villages A (46.0 ; 9 species), B (44.5 ; 10 species), and the area of secluded mountain B (17.3 ; 10 species). The photographed frequency at the spring water may reflect population density and/or visitation frequency of the animals, and suggests that the area is one of the important habitats for wildlife management.