Search

We document the presence of a huemul population on Cabo León, Riesco Island, Chilean Patagonia 15 years after its first assessment, providing ecological insights for this southernmost coastal population. During Austral spring 2018 we recorded indirect signs of huemul presence and five individuals including one yearling across 35 km of trails, estimating a density of 2.3 ind/km2. Records were distributed in dense secondary forest, at low elevations and slopes. These observations suggest the presence of a breeding population, favored by the establishment of a private reserve and the reduction of livestock, along with the recently established Kawésqar National Park.

Sarcocystis spp. are intracellular protozoan parasites with heteroxenous life cycles. This study described Sarcocystis spp. infection in adult South American native deer huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) and pudu (Pudu puda). Heart, diaphragm, tongue, and skeletal muscle samples were collected from 5 huemuls and 2 pudus, found dead in National Parks. Direct microscopic examination, transmission electron microscopy, PCR, and sequencing were performed. Sarcocystis spp. microscopic thin-walled cysts were identified in 3 huemuls and 1 pudu. Several cysts from 1 huemul and 1 pudu were observed by TEM; ultrastructure was similar to previously reported as cyst wall type 17 and types 2 and 8, respectively. Fragments of the 18S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) genes were amplified and sequenced from 3 individual cysts from 2 huemuls and 2 cysts from the pudu. The sequences from huemuls showed a high identity among them (> 99%) at both amplified targets. The highest identities were > 99.7% at 18S rRNA and 93% at cox1 with S. tarandivulpes sequences. The 18S rRNA gene sequences from pudus showed an identity > 99.7% with Sarcocystis sp., S. taeniata, and S. linearis sequences, while the cox1 sequences were different, one showing 99.42% identity with S. venatoria and the other 98.22% with S. linearis. A single species, similar to S. tarandivulpes, was identified in all huemul samples while 2 molecularly different Sarcocystis spp. were found in 1 pudu with high similarities to either S. venatoria or to S. linearis, S. taeniata-like, and S. morae. Based on the cox1 sequence identities, at least the Sarcocystis sp. in huemuls might represent a new species, primarily occurring in this host. Additional sarcocyst isolates from both hosts need to be examined molecularly in order to firmly establish whether these species are indeed native to huemuls and/or pudus or are derived from introduced deer species.

SUMMARY: Currently, the Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) is endangered. Anatomical studies focused on understanding the anatomy of the deer most threatened by extinction in South America is a challenge for anatomists, veterinarians and biologists. Research carried out for its conservation has focused mainly on its ecology and pathology, leaving gaps in anatomical knowledge, which is basic and important for a comprehensive understanding of this species. Gross anatomy and radiography of the skeleton of the pelvic limb was performed in three adult Patagonian huemul. Bone specimens of three skeletally mature Patagonian huemul deer were used for gross osteological and radiographic studies. This study was conducted to reveal the morphometric and morphological features of the ossa membri pelvini of the Patagonian huemul. The main findings suggest the presence of powerful extensor muscles in the coxofemoral, femorotibial and tarsal joints, useful during walking, jogging and propulsion in deer. In general, the MNF of Patagonian huemul differ in position with respect to domestic ungulates. In addition, the presence of a notch or obturator canal was observed, with variability in morphology and development among the specimens.

The forest and the steppe of North-Central Patagonia (Argentina) are contiguous yet contrasting environments that have been connected throughout their peopling history. Human occupation began in the early Holocene, became more regular ca. 3500 years BP, and has increased since 2200–1700 years BP. Beyond this general picture, the nature of the relationship between forest and steppe over time is a matter of debate. To better our understanding of the human use of both environments, where assessed and investigated various hunting techniques employed over the last 3500 years, a central activity for hunter-gatherer societies. First, we modeled hunting techniques combining ecology, size, and behavior of prey, ethnographic, historical, and archaeological data, and the environmental settings (topography and vegetation). Then, we evaluated the models using weapon lithic technology and the zooarchaeological records recovered from archaeological sites located in both the forest (Cholila, Epuyen, and Manso) and the steppe (Piedra Parada area) and dated to the last 3500 years. The analysis showed that in both environments the ungulates of medium to large sizes were the main prey (huemul, Hippocamelus bisulcus, and guanaco, Lama guanicoe). They were captured near the sites, in hunting events involving few animals. In the forest, small huemul social groups were hunted by ‘encounter’ technique mainly with bows and arrows. This weapon system would have enabled more recurrent and/or longer stays in the forest. In the steppe, the ‘approach’ method was the most used technique to hunt guanacos and lesser rheas (choique, Pterocnemia pennata). These animals could be captured in high productive wetlands (mallines) using mainly throwing weapons, and handheld weapons to a lesser extent. Our results reinforce the idea that by the end of the peopling process of both environments, distinctive traits had developed beyond the existing networks of interaction.

Resumen: A partir de consideraciones acerca de la geografía cultural para el archipiélago fueguino, se delibera sobre los registros de circulación de bienes, incluyendo la roca Miraflores, hematita, pirita y otros. Además, se discute su relación con la organización e instalaciones humanas que involucran el uso del hinterland o zonas interiores -casos como la búsqueda de corteza, caza de guanacos (Lama guanicoe) y huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), disposición de los muertos- y el equipamiento de individuos, canoas y lugares, considerando por ejemplo los corrales de pesca, varaderos y porteos o pasos de indio. Todos estos casos muestran la amplitud efectiva del nicho ecocultural para tiempos recientes en los archipiélagos de Fuego-Patagonia.

A combination of intramuscular medetomidine and ketamine was used to immobilize 46 free-ranging huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) with a remote drug delivery system in Chilean Patagonia for tagging and biological sampling. Captures occurred in May–October of 2005–09 between fall and early spring in the southern hemisphere. An initial dose of 6.6 mg medetomidine and 185 mg ketamine was adjusted after 17 captures to 3 mg and 200 mg, respectively, in the 29 remaining deer. Mean±SD adjusted dose was 0.042±0.012 mg/kg of medetomidine and 2.929±0.427 mg/kg of ketamine. Inductions were calm and the mean±SD time to sternal recumbency was 10.3±10.1 min. Palpebral reflex and jaw tone were present during immobilization. Atipamezole at 5 mg/mg of medetomidine was administered intramuscularly for reversal after 55.3±18.8 min procedure time. Recoveries were smooth and mean±SD time to standing was 10.2±3.3. All immobilized animals were hypoxemic by pulse oximetry (blood oxygen saturation approximately 81%). Three animals that developed apnea were resuscitated through chest compression and atipamezole administration, another regurgitated during capture, and all developed tachypnea. The combination of medetomidine-ketamine and atipamezole can be used for partially reversible immobilization of huemul, but supplemental oxygen should be administered, blood oxygenation should be monitored, and equipment for intubation and manual ventilation should be available.

Early naturalists already considered huemul rare, refuged and a stocky, short-legged mountain deer, 163 years before declared endangered (1972). Anatomically, huemul do not overlap with rock-climbers previously considered analogous, as corroborated in this paper by including additional huemul cases. Assertions that population declines are caused principally via livestock infections remain unfounded. Instead, osteopathology in multiple populations across 1,000 km, affecting 57% among dead and 86% among live specimens, may relate to micronutrient deficiencies. Historically classified a mountain deer, widespread osteopathology, micronutrient deficiencies and lack of recovery qualify huemul as a refugee species. Recovery strategies thus must include repopulating historical distribution sites.

The human population grows inexorably. When Charles Darwin explored the southern cone of South America in 1830, fewer than 1.2 billion people inhabited Earth. When Ehrlich’s Population Bomb appeared in 1968 there were ~3.5 billion. We approach eight billion today, and biospheric impacts do not abate. We’ve affected most life forms through climate modification, harvest, erasure and fragmentation of habitat, disease, and the casting of alien species. Given the lack of abatement in human population growth, herein we focus on the modalities of ecological disruption – direct and indirect – that mitigate the changing role of ungulates in landscapes. Much of what was once generally predictable in terms of pattern and process is no longer. Offshore climatic events have strong onshore consequence, as exemplified by toxic algal blooms in the Patagonian Pacific. These have diminished the harvest of fish and likely resulted in fisherman using dogs to hunt huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), the most endangered large terrestrial mammal of the Western Hemisphere. Similarly, human economies foment change in the Himalayan realm and Gobi Desert by increasing numbers of cashmere-producing goats, and where dogs that once followed tourists or guarded livestock they now hunt a half dozen threatened, endangered, and rare ungulates including kiang (Equus kiang) and chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), saiga (Saiga tatarica) and takin (Budorcas taxicolor), spread disease, and displace snow leopards (Panthera uncia). In North America’s Great Basin Desert, one hundred years of intense livestock grazing created a phase shift by which changed plant communities enabled mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) colonization. An altered predator-prey system ensued with the arrival of pumas (Panthera concolor). Patterns of resilience postulated by Hollings (1973) become more difficult to witness in the absence of humans as our domination of earth destabilizes systems beyond return points. These include ungulates both in and out of protected areas. Consequently, only messy projections of future community reorganization seem reasonable whether related to food webs or assembly rules that once governed ungulate communities of the very recent past.

In a huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) population sympatric with cattle, we found evidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection. Three huemul faecal pellet samples and two cows pats were collected and cultured for MAP presence. DNA was then extracted for PCR analysis of all signal-positive cultures. To assess whether MAP isolates obtained from huemul faeces were associated with typical MAP isolated from livestock, positive confirmed culture samples were sub-typed using a combination of five Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Unit-Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis and one Short Sequence Repeat analysis markers. All faecal samples from both species were MAP positive. One huemul presented a different bacteria profile genotype not described before, suggesting that huemul and cattle in Patagonia could carry a unique MAP strain.

Objectives Distinct diseases prevent endangered huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) recovery. Fundamental etiological factors include nutriments, a mayor component of habitat quality. Undernutrition affects growth, skeletal development, osteopathology, reproduction and immunocompetence: this paper amplifies data corroborating micro-nutrient deficiencies among huemul. Results In Argentina, 57% huemul cadavers exhibited osteopathology, with new cases reported here. Recently, 86% live huemul had osteopathology: cranial lesions involved antemortem tooth loss, reducing feeding efficiency and body condition, with starvation deaths. This population had tissues well deficient compared to other cervids, averaging 0.28 ppm selenium, 4.98 ppm copper, whereas for manganese 55% were deficient (2.52 ppm) and 45% adequate (42.79 ppm). Recently, lesions in one Chilean huemul were interpreted to stem from parapoxvirus. That population also has cases with cranial osteopathologies, high disease susceptibility (parapoxvirus, parasitism, foot lesions), crippled antlers, and low density, indicative of marginal habitat and primary etiological factors like undernutrition and immunosuppression. The reported atypical symptoms attributed to parapoxvirus may relate to probable diagnostic limitations, but does support presence of nutritional deficiencies. Patagonia has selenium deficient plants and livestock, including severe muscular dystrophy, and soil levels in extant huemul areas considered very deficient. Moreover, 73% of Chilean huemul were selenium deficient and 64% severely deficient with concomitant cranial osteopathology.

Objectives Most subpopulations of endangered huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) fail to recover, frequently due to osteopathology. Equivalent pathology was detected only postmortem in an additional deer 365 km further north, stressing the need to improve clinical evaluations of live huemul. Results Captured on a farm and attended by authorities in charge of huemul, the deer was considered apt for relocation and release. Delays with attendance and lack of reversal drugs resulted in his death. The subsequent necropsy revealed severe osteopathology particularly in mandibles and maxillae. Such disease in another southern population affected 57+ % among dead adults, and 86% among live adults. The present case stems from a new subpopulation, isolated 365 km further north. Such severe pathology demands that individuals be rehabilitated, especially relevant with severely endangered species, because liberations will cause premature death and loss of reproductive lifetime. Live huemul must be examined utmost professionally especially regarding this pathophysiognomy. This incidence represents the typical situation of extant huemul, being displaced from their traditional migratory behavior to utilize fertile low-elevation habitat. This young male may have been dispersing, but reaching valleys usually leads to death due to locally intense anthropogenic activities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-018-3755-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Protected areas help to decrease human impacts on threatened mammals but do not always include species’ core habitats. Here we focus on the Vulnerable taruka Hippocamelus antisensis near the Atacama Desert, Chile, a population that is mainly threatened by interactions with local human communities. We develop a species distribution model for taruka and assess the contribution of protected areas to safeguarding its preferred habitat. From sightings (collected during 2004–2015), absence records (collected in 2014), and environmental variables, we determined that taruka habitat is scarce, highly fragmented and limited to humid areas. Only 7.7–11.2% of the taruka's core habitat is under protection. We recommend the establishment of a protected area in the south of Arica-Parinacota district, an area without settlements that lies within the taruka's core habitat, along with educational programmes, fencing of crops, and inclusion of communities in decision-making in areas where farmer–taruka interactions are negative.

The tragic fire at the National Museum (Brazil) in September 2018 caused invaluable losses to South American natural and cultural heritage. However, previous visits to the paleontological collection generated photographic and descriptive records of mammalian fossil specimens from the Pleistocene of Brazil. Thus, it was possible to redescribe and revise the taxonomy of Cervidae fossils from two important paleontological sites in the Brazilian Intertropical Region (Joao Cativo and Lage Grande). These fossils include antlers and lower teeth, and they were described and taxonomically identified by morphological comparisons with all extant and extinct South American deers. A new diversity of Cervidae was recognized, differently from that proposed in the literature, which recognized the presence of Hippocamelus sulcatus, Mazama americana, and Ozotoceros bezoarticus. Instead, the Cervidae fossils from Joao Cativo and Lage Grande sites belong to the extinct deer Morenelaphus. Although some specimens could not be identified at a specific level (Cervidae indet.), a comparative analysis of the estimated body mass pointed out the most massive deer in South America (including extinct and extant) and recognized Morenelaphus as the second heaviest. The record of these large deers with huge antlers suggests the presence of natural grasslands areas and milder climatic conditions for late Pleistocene in the Brazilian Intertropical Region. Climatic and environmental changes may have driven these large deers to extinction in the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. This study reveals an unprecedented Cervidae diversity for the Brazilian Intertropical Region, emphasizes the relevance of dental features, together with antlers morphology, in taxonomic studies of Cervidae, and also highlights the importance of South American natural heritage in the retrieving of knowledge and new scientific discoveries through collection specimens.

Areas with high shrub and grass cover are scarce and important for arid-land ungulates. Unfortunately, agricultural activities are often concentrated in such areas causing ungulates either to include croplands as foraging areas or being displaced to less desirable and more restrictive habitats. Considering this conflict, we assessed the spatial overlap of taruka ( Hippocamelus antisensis ) and feral donkeys ( Equus asinus ) at intermediate scales (0–2000 m) and compare their habitat preferences in the highland desert of northern Chile. We visited the area during the dry season; we estimated the vegetation cover and measured distance to croplands from animal sightings and control points. We found that there was an aggregated spatial pattern between donkey and taruka and both species used areas with shrub (p = 0.770) and bare ground cover (p = 0.124) as available. Nevertheless they differed on their location relative to crops (taruka used areas as available p = 0.964, feral donkeys avoided areas near crops p

The aim of this study was to provide morphometric, anatomic and radiographic data of the thoracic limb bones of the Patagonian Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) including a functional interpretation of this, as a reference for clinical use, biomedical research and teaching purposes. Currently, the Patagonian huemul deer is in danger of becoming extinct due to multiple causes. Research carried out for its conservation has focused mainly on its ecology and pathology, leaving gaps in biological knowledge, which is basic and important for its comprehension. This study was conducted to reveal the gross osteology and radiology features of the thoracic limb bones of the Patagonian huemul deer. The osteological findings suggest the presence of powerful flexor muscles in the scapulohumeral and elbow joints, useful to cushion the jumps. Also, the principal nutrient foramen of Patagonian huemul differs in position with respect to domestic ungulates, which may be important to consider during surgical procedures. Finally, the radiographic data can provide new information about the tissue loading conditions in Patagonian huemul, so that this new knowledge can be of great importance for a better understanding of mechanically induced or adaptive changes in bone produced by habitat or other ecological phenomena.

Objective. Identify parasites in huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) feces from natural protected areas of south–central Chile and evaluate differences in parasite prevalence between regions and seasons. Materials and methods. 200 fecal samples from huemul were collected during all seasons of the year from different localities of the Ñuble, Aysén and Magallanes regions between years 2006 and 2008. Samples were analyzed using flotation and sedimentation techniques and further observed with the microscope in order to detect parasites. Additionally, 124 samples were analyzed to determine the presence of Fasciola hepatica. Results. The 38.0% (n=76/200) of samples were positive to at least one parasite form, evidencing a prevalence of 11.8% (n=2/17) in Ñuble, 22.8% (n=28/123) in Aysén and a 76.7% (n=46/60) in Magallanes. Moniezia sp. eggs were found in the Ñuble region, meanwhile, Strongyle-type eggs, Nematodirus sp. eggs and Eimeria spp. oocysts were found in the Aysén and Magallanes regions. There was no evidence of F. hepatica during sample examination. Differences in parasitism were detected between seasons in Aysén and Magallanes (p≤0.05). Conclusions. Aysén and Magallanes regions showed a relatively higher prevalence and diversity of parasites than the Ñuble region. This could be related to differences in density of huemul populations and livestock in each region. Further parasitological surveys in huemul populations from central and southern Chile should be performed in the future. Studies involving the relationship between the huemul and livestock and the potential inter- and intraspecific transmission of parasites are also required., Objetivo. Identificar parásitos en heces del huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) presente en áreas naturales protegidas del centro y sur de Chile y evaluar diferencias en la prevalencia de parásitos entre regiones y estaciones del año. Materiales y métodos. 200 muestras de heces de huemul fueron colectadas de distintas localidades de las regiones de Ñuble, Aysén y Magallanes a lo largo de todas las estaciones entre los años 2006 y 2008. Las muestras fueron analizadas utilizando las técnicas de flotación y sedimentación, para ser posteriormente observadas en el microscopio con el objetivo de detectar parásitos. Adicionalmente, se analizaron 124 de estas muestras para determinar la presencia de Fasciola hepatica. Resultados. El 38.0%(n=76/200) de las muestras analizadas fueron positivas a algún parásito, observándose una prevalencia de 11.8%(n=2/17) en Ñuble, 22.8%(n=28/123) en Aysén y un 76.7%(n=46/60) en Magallanes. En Ñuble se encontraron huevos de Moniezia sp., mientras que en Aysén y Magallanes se identificaron huevos tipo Estrongílido, Nematodirus sp. y ooquistes de Eimeria spp. No se evidenció F. hepatica en las muestras analizadas. Se detectan diferencias de parasitismo entre las estaciones (p≤0.05) en Aysén y Magallanes. Conclusiones. La diferencia en la prevalencia y diversidad parasitaria entre regiones incluidas en este estudio pueden estar relacionadas con la disimilitud en la densidad poblacional de huemules y la masa ganadera de cada región. Es necesario continuar con monitoreos parasitológicos en poblaciones de huemul en Chile sur y central y estudiar la relación de esta especie con el ganado y la posible transmisión inter- e intraespecífica de parásitos.

Cervidae are an Cetartiodactyla family that entered South America in the Pleistocene, during the event known as “Great American Biotic Exchange”. In the Argentinean Quaternary the genera Antifer, Epieuryceros, Morenelaphus and Paraceros, all extinct in the Late Pleistocene, are recognized along with the genera Hippocamelus, Pudu, Blastoceros, Ozotoceros and Mazama, present inhabitants of the South American territory, and some of which are represented also in Pleistocene times. The aim of this work is to present and describe new fossil deer remains from different Pleistocene localities in Buenos Aires Province (Argentina) and to make some geographical and environmental considerations. The southernmost record of the genus Morenelaphus and the species M. lujanensis is here presented, coming from Punta Alta locality, and the first female specimen assigned to Morenelaphus sp. is described, as well as new materials with the same assignment for the localities of Junín and Paraje 7 Bridges, Sauce Grande River Valley. New remains of Antifer sp., from San Bernardo locality, and Hippocamelus sulcatus from Junín locality are disclosed. The first Pleistocene record of Ozotoceros bezoarticus is presented for the Buenos Aires Province, coming from the Junín locality. Os Cervidae constituem uma das famílias de Cetartiodactyla que ingressaram na América do Sul no Pleistoceno, como parte do evento conhecido como “Grande Intercâmbio Biótico Americano”. No Quaternário argentino são reconhecidos os gêneros Antifer, Epieuryceros, Morenelaphus e Paraceros, extintos no Neopleistoceno, além dos gêneros Hippocamelus, Pudu, Blastoceros, Ozotoceros e Mazama, habitantes atuais do território sul-americano, alguns dos quais se encontram representados também no Pleistoceno. O presente estudo tem por objetivo dar a conhecer e descrever novos materiais de cervos fósseis procedentes de distintas localidades pleistocênicas da Província de Buenos Aires, Argentina, bem como discutir sobre a distribuição geográfica dos mesmos. É apresentado o registro mais austral do gênero Morenelaphus e da espécie M. lujanensis, correspondente a localidade de Punta Alta, e descrito o primeiro exemplar fêmea assignado a Morenelaphus sp., além de novos materiais com a mesma assignação para as localidades de Junín e Paraje 7 Puentes, Vale do Rio Sauce Grande. É dado a conhecer novos materiais de Antifer sp. para a localidade de San Bernardo, e Hippocamelus sulcatus para a localidade de Junín. É também apresentado o primeiro registro pleistocênico de Ozotoceros bezoarticus para a Província de Buenos Aires, procedente da localidade de Junín. Fil: Chimento, Nicolás Roberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Parque Centenario. Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia"; Argentina Fil: Zuccari, José Ignacio. Municipalidad de Junín (Buenos Aires); Argentina Fil: Marchetto, José María. Municipalidad de Junín (Buenos Aires); Argentina Fil: Berbach, Lorena. Museo Municipal de Ciencias Naturales Carlos Darwin; Argentina

Neotropical forest deer comprise a range of species distributed in a wide variety of habitats. Due to that diversity, movement patterns studies of free-ranging deer are unequally distributed among the different species. Studies with Hippocamelus bisulcus examine altitudinal movements between seasons and in association with reproduction. H. bisulcus tend to select mid-slope habitats while avoiding the highest elevations. Furthermore, H. bisulcus move altitudinally and seasonally to find the best areas for foraging and in relation to reproductive cycles and social interactions. However, none of the population of H. bisulcus studied appears to migrate, which suggests that there is plenty of space and food to make migration unnecessary. Movement studies with Odocoileus virginianus have been conducted in Mexico. In the wet season, home range and daily distances were larger than dry season, which could be related to the intense search for best foraging places. Home ranges of female were smaller than males, and differences in distances covered per day were found between sex and seasons. For Mazama spp., movement patterns have been inferred from camera traps and radiotelemetry. M. bororo has been photographed most frequently along streams, and that behavior may be because traveling there is easy or it avoids predators. Home ranges for M. gouazoubira, M. bororo, and M. pandora were calculated in Bolivia, Brazil, and Mexico. Based on distance traveled and turning angles, movement patterns of M. gouazoubira in the Brazilian Pantanal were classified as encamped and exploratory, which were related to the type of habitat and period of day. Moreover, greatest distances moved found during the flooding season could be related to the availability of resources in areas that are not underwater and are separated by greater distances. Neotropical forest deer have been neglected in movement patterns studies, and the greatest challenges are associated with the difficulties to find efficient methods for capture and access to less costly telemetry equipment. Overcoming these barriers could further our understanding about the ecological roles the deer can play in the communities wherever they are found.

Argentina has an extensive and diverse terrain classified into 11 ecoregions. Seven of these ecoregions, occupying the north and north-central parts of the country, house the 11 tropical ungulate species found here. The ecoregions are lowland and subtropical, some beginning in the tropics, some extending to temperate climates. The principal topographical characteristics, hydrology, climate, vegetation and fauna are described for these seven ecoregions. Each of the 11 species is then treated in detail with respect to its ecology and conservation. Emphasis is placed on distribution, habitat and density, feeding ecology, threats and conservation in Argentina, based on the most recent studies. Data on reproductive biology and behaviour are included where information is relatively recent and unlikely to be covered elsewhere. The species include the following: the Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), found in northern subtropical ecoregions, three species of peccary (Tayassu pecari, Pecari tajacu and Parachoerus wagneri) from northern subtropical and drier regions, of which the Chacoan peccary (P. wagneri) is endemic while the other two species have more extensive distributions. The guanaco (Lama guanicoe) occurs only in relict populations in the ecoregions considered. The taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis) occupies the eastern boundary between the Yungas and drier, high altitude ecoregions. Three species of brocket deer (Mazama americana, M. gouazoubira and M. nana) occupy the northern tropical, subtropical and Chacoan areas. The marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), the largest South American deer, has small populations occupying wetlands from the northern border to the Parana delta, while the pampas deer (Ozotocerus bezoaticus) is found in four isolated populations from Ibera to Buenos Aires province. Argentina represents the southern limit to the distribution of all these species and thus threats are often magnified. Ongoing conservation activities include the maintenance of protected areas, promotion (difusion, education, sensitization), investigation and the reintroduction of some species of formerly extinct ungulates into the Ibera wetlands area.

To recognize the distributional patterns of living ungulates in the Neotropical region, the South American transition zone, and Andean region using the panbiogeographical method of track analysis, and to attempt to correlate these patterns with geological history. The distribution of 24 species of living ungulates (in the families Camelidae, Cervidae, Tapiridae and Tayassuidae) was studied by the panbiogeographical method of track analysis. It was performed using distributional data acquired from literature and databases of scientific institutions. Individual tracks were obtained for each species by plotting locality records on maps and connecting them by minimum-spanning trees. Generalized tracks were determined from the spatial overlap between individual tracks, indicating a common history. The intersection between generalized tracks defined a biogeographic node, implying that these locations are biogeographic composites resulting from different ancestral biotas coming into spatial contact, possibly at different geologic times. The superposition of the 24 individual tracks resulted in five generalized tracks (GTs): GT1, Mesoamerican/Choco (composed of Mazama pandora , Mazama temama, Odoicoileus virginianus and Tapirus bairdii ); GT2, Northern Andes ( Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles and Tapirus pinchaque ); GT3, Central Andes ( Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi and Vicugna vicugna ); GT4, Chilean Patagonia ( Hippocamelus bisulcus and Pudu puda ); and GT5, Chaco/Central west Brazil ( Blastocerus dichotomus , Catagonus wagneri and Ozotocerus bezoarticus ). The biogeographic node was found in the Northwestern Colombia. The geological events such as tectonism and volcanism that occurred through the Neogene and mainly in the Pleistocene caused fragmentation, diversification and endemism of biota. The biogeographic node in Colombia occurred within a zone of convergence. This node emphasized the complexity of the area and it contains biotic elements with different origins, which represent a special condition for the establishment of priority conservation areas.

Habitat loss is one of the main threats to wildlife, particularly large mammals. Estimating the potential distribution of threatened species to guide surveys and conservation is crucial, primarily because such species tend to exist in small fragmented populations. The Endangered huemul deer Hippocamelus bisulcus is endemic to the southern Andes of Chile and Argentina. Although the species occurs in the Valdivian Ecoregion, a hotspot for biodiversity, we have no information on its occupancy and potential distribution in this region. We built and compared species distribution models for huemul using the maximum entropy approach, using 258 presence records and sets of bioclimatic and geographical variables as predictors, with the objective of assessing the potential distribution of the species in the Valdivian Ecoregion. Annual temperature range and summer precipitation were the predictive variables with the greatest influence in the best-fitting model. Approximately 12,360 km2 of the study area was identified as suitable habitat for the huemul, of which 30% is included in the national protected area systems of Chile and Argentina. The map of potential distribution produced by our model will facilitate prioritization of future survey efforts in other remote and unexplored areas in which huemul have not been recorded since the 1980s but where there is a high probability of their occurrence.

The creation of protected areas has been the main strategy to counter loss and fragmentation of habitats for large mammals, but these areas by themselves cannot guarantee species’ conservation. Forestry plantations can provide habitat for a large range of species. However, studies assessing the impact of forestry plantations on large mammals are scarce. Our objective was to identify the environmental variables that explained the presence of the endangered huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus) in an area with mixed pine plantation and native forest in the Chilean Patagonia. Occupancy models using data collected from camera traps indicated higher occupancy in plantation areas (0.70) than in native forest (0.50). The main variable explaining the presence of the huemul in both forest types was the understory cover between 21 cm and 50 cm in height. By maintaining understory cover, plantations provide a suitable complementary habitat for the forest-dwelling huemul. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

El presente trabajo expone los resultados del análisis de la fauna recuperada en la localidad arqueológica de Laguna Cóndor, ubicada en el curso superior del río Gallegos en la zona de los Morros, Santa Cruz, Argentina. A pesar de la baja tasa de depositación ósea general, se registraron elevadas densidades puntuales de huesos muy fragmentados. Se identificó una alta diversidad de especies recuperadas aunque un único taxón fue explotado en forma intensa. El uso de la fauna estuvo dirigido fundamentalmente a la explotación de Lama guanicoe y, en forma ocasional, a recursos de bosque (Hippocamelus bisulcus) y a fauna introducida (Equus caballus). La evidencia refuerza la interpretación de Laguna Cóndor como un espacio explotado logísticamente en forma intensa y recurrente, pero por periodos relativamente breves hacia ca. 200 años AP. This paper presents the results of the analysis of faunal assemblages recovered at the archaeological locality of Laguna Condor, on the upper basin of the Gallegos River at the "Morros area", Santa Cruz, Argentina. Despite the low rate of bone deposition, high densities of highly fragmented bones were recorded. A high diversity of species was identified, although only one taxon was intensively exploited. The focus was on the exploitation of Lama guanicoe and, occasionally, forest resources (Hippocamelus bisulcus), and European fauna (Equus caballus). The evidence reinforces the interpretation of Laguna Condor as logistically, redundantly and intensively exploited place during short periods ca. 200 years AP. Fil: L'heureux, Gabriela Lorena. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas; Argentina Fil: Borrero, Luis Alberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Saavedra 15. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas; Argentina

Abstract Context The currently remaining 350–500 huemuls in Argentina are not recovering. We evaluated live huemuls, along with animals that died soon after confinement, or those that had died recently. Although information on the health status is highly valuable, repeated misdiagnoses of the health status indicate a need for other strategies. Aims . Discrepancies between clinical and postmortem diagnoses are critical for improving subsequent management decisions. Methods Initial clinical interpretations and risk assessments were reinterpreted on the basis of necropsies and other data. Results Two debilitated huemul individuals examined by veterinarians died soon afterwards, supposedly one being intoxicated and one being without lesions. Necropsies showed osteopathology and fluorosis (fluorine concentrations of 2209 and 2979 mg/kg). Another male was tied up, with authorities and veterinarians arriving the next day. After being sedated, and judged healthy, the animal was translocated. Because there was no reversal, this animal died 22 h post-capture. Exhumation showed severe osteopathology. Elsewhere, huemuls were considered adequate in selenium because values below the detection limit were excluded. However, when all values were included, 75% of the animals were selenium-deficient; this population had numerous cases of osteopathology. Recently, specialists went to Torres del Paine Park suspecting caseous lymphadenitis, reporting of which has been obligatory since 1937. However, many cases documented in 1999–2007 have not elicited responses since that time by health professionals. Selenium deficiency negatively affects antibody responses against caseous lymphadenitis. One province had denied huemul capture (2012 and 2013) on recommendation of scientific advisors. Because of the right for transparency, it was found out in 2016 that authorities had requested advice from only one veterinarian who assessed that darting was too risky. Another 2016 project proposed to dart the first huemul in Argentina. Two weeks earlier, that same team was called to rescue a tied-up huemul; the team opted not to involve a laboratory with drugs and radios that was only 1 h away. This huemul died and was left in the woods. Finally, the first huemul enclosure in Argentina was proposed (1995), but the permission was denied. Again, in 2000, the first huemul centre with private funding secured for 30 years was proposed. However, the Regional Delegation for Patagonian National Parks prevented aerial surveys, and advised not to provide a permit for the centre. Conclusions Future assessments should consider osteopathology. Risk assessments should be transparent and based on assessment by multiple qualified professionals. Implications Clinical misdiagnoses may reduce life expectancy, in contrast to taking individuals to enclosures, which would also allow valuable reintroductions. Not permitting captures, censusses and enclosures has resulted in unwarranted delays in conservation progress.

The huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) is an endangered cervid endemic to southern Argentina and Chile. Here we report foot lesions in 24 huemul from Bernardo O'Higgins National Park, Chile, between 2005 and 2010. Affected deer displayed variably severe clinical signs, including lameness and soft tissue swelling of the limbs proximal to the hoof or in the interdigital space, ulceration of the swollen tissues, and some developed severe proliferative tissue changes that caused various types of abnormal wear, entrapment, and/or displacement of the hooves and/or dewclaws. Animals showed signs of intense pain and reduced mobility followed by loss of body condition and recumbency, which often preceded death. The disease affected both genders and all age categories. Morbidity and mortality reached 80% and 40%, respectively. Diagnostics were restricted to a limited number of cases from which samples were available. Histology revealed severe papillomatous epidermal hyperplasia and superficial dermatitis. Electron microscopy identified viral particles consistent with viruses in the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily. The presence of parapoxvirus DNA was confirmed by a pan-poxvirus PCR assay, showing high identity (98%) with bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpoxvirus. This is the first report of foot disease in huemul deer in Chile, putatively attributed to poxvirus. Given the high morbidity and mortality observed, this virus might pose a considerable conservation threat to huemul deer in Chilean Patagonia. Moreover, this report highlights a need for improved monitoring of huemul populations and synergistic, rapid response efforts to adequately address disease events that threaten the species.

BackgroundClimate change is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, pushing species to shift their distribution ranges and making existing protected areas inadequate. Estimating species distribution and potential modifications under climate change are then necessary for adjusting conservation and management plans; this is especially true for endangered species. An example of this issue is the huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), an endemic endangered deer from the southern Andes Range, with less than 2,000 individuals. It is distributed in fragmented populations along a 2,000 km latitudinal gradient, in Chile and Argentina. Several threats have reduced its distribution to MethodsTo estimate its potential distribution and protected areas effectiveness, we constructed a species distribution model using 2,813 huemul presence points throughout its whole distribution range, together with 19 bioclimatic layers and altitude information from Worldclim. Its current distribution was projected for years 2050 and 2070 using five different Global Climate Models estimated for scenarios representing two carbon Representative Concentration Routes (RCP)—RCP4.5 and RCP6.0.ResultsBased on current huemul habitat variables, we estimated 91,617 km2of suitable habitat. In future scenarios of climate change, there was a loss of suitable habitat due to altitudinal and latitudinal variation. Future projections showed a decrease of 59.86–60.26% for the year 2050 and 58.57–64.34% for the year 2070 according to RCP4.5 and RCP6.0, respectively. Protected areas only covered only 36.18% of the present distribution, 38.57–34.94% for the year 2050 and 30.79–31.94% for 2070 under climate change scenarios.DiscussionModeling current and future huemul distributions should allow the establishment of priority conservation areas in which to focus efforts and funds, especially areas without official protection. In this way, we can improve management in areas heavily affected by climate change to help ensure the persistence of this deer and other species under similar circumstances worldwide.