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The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is an iconic large carnivore that has increasingly been recognized as an apex predator with intrinsic value and a keystone species. However, wolves have also long represented a primary source of human–carnivore conflict, which has led to long-term persecution of wolves, resulting in a significant decrease in their numbers, genetic diversity and gene flow between populations. For more effective protection and management of wolf populations in Europe, robust scientific evidence is crucial. This review serves as an analytical summary of the main findings from wolf population genetic studies in Europe, covering major studies from the ‘pre-genomic era’ and the first insights of the ‘genomics era’. We analyse, summarize and discuss findings derived from analyses of three compartments of the mammalian genome with different inheritance modes: maternal (mitochondrial DNA), paternal (Y chromosome) and biparental [autosomal microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)]. To describe large-scale trends and patterns of genetic variation in European wolf populations, we conducted a meta-analysis based on the results of previous microsatellite studies and also included new data, covering all 19 European countries for which wolf genetic information is available: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Belarus, Russia, Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Spain and Portugal. We compared different indices of genetic diversity in wolf populations and found a significant spatial trend in heterozygosity across Europe from south-west (lowest genetic diversity) to north-east (highest). The range of spatial autocorrelation calculated on the basis of three characteristics of genetic diversity was 650−850 km, suggesting that the genetic diversity of a given wolf population can be influenced by populations up to 850 km away. As an important outcome of this synthesis, we discuss the most pressing issues threatening wolf populations in Europe, highlight important gaps in current knowledge, suggest solutions to overcome these limitations, and provide recommendations for science-based wolf conservation and management at regional and Europe-wide scales.

Väitekirja elektrooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsioone., Ajal, mil mitmete hundipopulatsioonide levila on Euroopas suurenemas, on teadmised hundi populatsioonigeneetikast vajalikud liigi jaoks oluliste kaitse- ja majandamisotsuste tegemiseks ja seda nii kohalike populatsioonide kui ka üleeuroopalisel tasandil. Käesoleva töö peamisteks eesmärkideks oli uurida Eesti ja Läti hundipopulatsioonide struktuuri ja –protsesse, hübridiseerumist koertega ning laiemalt kogu Euroopa huntide ruumilis-geneetilise mitmekesisuse mustreid ja trende. Kasutades nii emaliini, isaliini kui ka biparentaalseid geneetilisi markereid kombineerivat analüüsi, tuvastasime Eestis (esmakordselt) ja Lätis hundi ja koera hübriidid, sealjuures kaks hübriidi Lätist esindasid väga haruldast, Euroopas esmakordselt tuvastatud hübridiseerimisjuhtumit - emase koera ja isase hundi vahel. Eestit ja Lätit hõlmav hundipopulatsiooni geneetilisel analüüsil leiti neli geneetiliselt eristuvat rühma ning uudne DResD analüüs tuvastas populatsioonis migratsioonikoridori ning liikumisbarjääre ja kontakttsoone eri geneetiliste rühmade vahel. Suuremat osa Euroopa hundipopulatsioonidest hõlmav meta-analüüs tuvastas olulise ruumilise mitmekesisuse trendi – huntide madalaim geneetiline mitmekesisus esines Euroopa edelaosas ja kõrgeim kirdeosas. Tulemustes selgunud ruumilise autokorrelatsiooni vahemik 650-850 km näitab, et konkreetse hundipopulatsiooni geneetilist mitmekesisust võivad mõjutada hundipopulatsioonid, mis asuvad kuni 850 km kaugusel. Enamik Euroopa hundipopulatsioonidest on silmitsi sarnaste, inimese poolt otseselt või kaudselt seotud ohtudega: küttimine (sealhulgas salaküttimine), inimeste madal sallivus hundi suhtes, konfliktid kariloomade murdmise tõttu, elupaikade hävimine ning võimalik hübridiseerumine koertega. Selleks, et hunt säiliks Euroopas pikka aega ja soodsas seisundis, on vaja suurendada Euroopa hundipopulatsioonide üldist arvukust ja soodustada loomade levikut ja populatsioonide-siseseid ja -vahelisi seoseid. Hundi teaduspõhiseks kaitsmiseks ja majandamiseks nii piirkondlikel kui ka üleeuroopalisel skaalal, on hundipopulatsioone vaja hallata kui bioloogilisi üksusi, mis nõuab kõiki Euroopa hundipopulatsioone hõlmavaid täiendavaid geneetilisi analüüse, et teha kindlaks populatsioonide täpne arv, ruumiline jaotus, geenisiirde ulatused ning hübridiseerumise sageduse koertega., As many wolf populations in Europe are expanding their range, knowledge of population genetics are of great importance for effective conservation and management of the species at both local and over-European scales. The main goal of this thesis was to provide information on wolf population structure and processes in Europe with a particular emphasis on Estonia and Latvia, including the wolf-dog hybridization. Using a combined analysis of maternal, paternal and biparental genetic markers, hybridization between grey wolf and domestic dog was ascertained in Estonia (for the first time) and in Latvia. The two hybrids from Latvia represented a very rare case of hybridization – the first record from Europe – between a female dog and a male wolf. Population structure analysis demonstrated that wolf popu¬lation shared between Estonia and Latvia is represented by four genetic groups. The spatially explicit DResD analysis provided clear evidence of spatial variation of genetic divergence, revealing a migration corridor, barriers, and several contact zones between different genetic groups. In a meta-analysis covering most of the European wolf populations, significant spatial trend in heterozygosity across Europe from south-west (lowest genetic diversity) to north-east (highest) was found. The range of spatial autocorrelation of 650−850 km suggests, that the genetic diversity of a given wolf population can be influenced by populations up to 850 km away. Various human-related factors are undoubtedly the main source of threats to wolf populations in Europe: the majority of populations face similar common threats such as overharvesting (including poaching), low public acceptance, conflicts due to livestock depredation, habitat destruction, barriers to gene flow and interactions with dogs leading to possible hybridization. For the long-term survival and favourable conservation status of European wolves there is a need to increase the overall population size and favour wolf dispersal and connectivity among and within populations. For science-based wolf conservation and manage¬ment at regional and Europe-wide scales it was suggested to manage wolf populations according to biological units, which requires additional genetic analysis covering all wolf populations in Europe to define the exact number and spatial distribution of populations.

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is an iconic large carnivore that has increasingly been recognized as an apex predator with intrinsic value and a keystone species. However, wolves have also long represented a primary source of human–carnivore conflict, which has led to long-term persecution of wolves, resulting in a significant decrease in their numbers, genetic diversity and gene flow between populations. For more effective protection and management of wolf populations in Europe, robust scientific evidence is crucial. This review serves as an analytical summary of the main findings from wolf population genetic studies in Europe, covering major studies from the ‘pre-genomic era’ and the first insights of the ‘genomics era’. We analyse, summarize and discuss findings derived from analyses of three compartments of the mammalian genome with different inheritance modes: maternal (mitochondrial DNA), paternal (Y chromosome) and biparental [autosomal microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)]. To describe large-scale trends and patterns of genetic variation in European wolf populations, we conducted a meta-analysis based on the results of previous microsatellite studies and also included new data, covering all 19 European countries for which wolf genetic information is available: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Belarus, Russia, Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Spain and Portugal. We compared different indices of genetic diversity in wolf populations and found a significant spatial trend in heterozygosity across Europe from south-west (lowest genetic diversity) to north-east (highest). The range of spatial autocorrelation calculated on the basis of three characteristics of genetic diversity was 650−850 km, suggesting that the genetic diversity of a given wolf population can be influenced by populations up to 850 km away. As an important outcome of this synthesis, we discuss the most pressing issues threatening wolf populations in Europe, highlight important gaps in current knowledge, suggest solutions to overcome these limitations, and provide recommendations for science-based wolf conservation and management at regional and Europe-wide scales.

https://www.ester.ee/record=b5474519*est