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Aim: The flexor retinaculum lies between the medial malleolus of the tibia and the medial process of the calcaneus. It converts grooves on the tibia and calcaneus into the tarsal tunnel. The aim of this study was to analyze the morphometry, the course, and the shape of the flexor retinaculum covering the tarsal tunnel in formaldehyde-fixed cadavers. Material and Methods: Six lower extremities of four formaldehyde-fixed cadavers (four right sides, and 2 left sides) were examined to evaluate the morphometry of the flexor retinaculum. The cadavers were two females and two males with an age range of 60-89 years. A digital caliper (150 mm) and a light microscope were used for measuring parameters. The central length, proximal, midpoint, and distal width, thickness, course, and shape of the flexor retinaculum were examined in this study. Results: The mean central length of the flexor retinaculum was found 42.26±5.18 mm. The mean proximal, midpoint, and distal width of the flexor retinaculum were 29.29±7.29 mm, 29.92±3.66 mm, and 29.76±8.13 mm, respectively. The mean of the thickness was measured at 234.94 µm. The flexor retinaculum coursed vertically in four extremities and coursed obliquely in two extremities. The shape of the retinaculum was triangular in five extremities and quadrangular in only one extremity. Conclusion: The morphometric data obtained from this study can help surgeons during the operations of the tarsal tunnel syndrome. To our knowledge, the width and course of the flexor retinaculum were examined for the first time in this study.

Objective: As in all areas of life, there are inequalities between individuals in the field of medical education. The way to eliminate these inequalities is to eliminate those who produce inequalities, but questioning inequalities is also an important step. The aim of this study is to reveal what extent sexist and racist approaches are used in anatomy education with or without awareness. Methods: In order to reveal sexist and racist approaches in anatomy education, the figures in 3 anatomy atlases and 3 textbookswritten in English, which are widely used, were evaluated. The figures in these textbooks whose sex and skin color were evident, were examined by 2 observers and the phenotypic characteristics of the people in these figures were evaluated. Results: Within the scope of this study, more than 1500 figures and drawings were analyzed in terms of "sex" and "race". Most of the figures in these books and atlases had the phenotypic characteristics of "western", "white" and "male". The number of "non-white" and "non-male" figures was less than 3%. Conclusion: According to the observed data, it was found that the most frequently used sources in anatomy education were overwhelmingly dominated by "western", "white" and "male" figures. We think that this situation may lead to the problem of misinterpretation of "norms" in the education of individuals, and that it is important to creating awareness with public resources to change this situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asterion is the junction of lambdoid, parietomastoid and occipitomastoid sutures and it corresponds to the location of the posterolateral fontanelle. It is close related to the location of junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses. Mastoid process, posterior end of zygomatic arch, external occipital protuberance and lambda are bony features in close proximity of asterion. In the present study we measured the distance between asterion and each of aforementioned bony points. Twenty human dry skulls were included in this study. Distance between asterion and mastoid process was 43.65 ± 6.75 mm on the left side and 45.01± 6.04mm on the right side. Distance between asterion and posterior end of zygomatic arch was 43.97 ± 7.37 mm on the left side and 43.95± 7.02 mm on the right side. Distance between asterion and external occipital protuberance was 62.59 ± 8.83 mm on the left side and 54.75 ±5.57mm on the right side. Distance between asterion and lambda was 81.40 ± 7.36 mm on the left side and 82 ± 4.96 mm on the right side. In 84 % of the cases asterion was at the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses. In 12% of the cases asterion was below the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses. In 4 % of the cases asterion was above the junction of transverse and sigmoid sinuses. Asterion is the essential point to indicate safety zone for surgical approach and to determine sex and age. It is of great interest of anatomists, anthropologists, forensic experts, radiologists and neurosurgeons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The nucleus accumbens is an important component of the ventral striatum. It is a round and flattened structure, which is located anterior to the posterior border of the anterior commissure and lies paralel to the midline. It has a crucial role in the cognitive processing of motivation, reward, addiction, aversion, slow-wave sleep and reinforcement learning. The aim of this study was to revisit the afferent and efferent pathways of the nucleus accumbens. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was performed using Pubmed and Google Scholar websites. Results: Neurons in the nucleus accumbens receive input from the ventral tegmental area (via the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway), the amygdaloid complex (primarily via the ventral amygdalofugal pathway), from the hippocampal formation (through the precommissural fornix), and from cells of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Additionally, fibers from the prefrontal cortex and prelimbic cortex project to the nucleus accumbens. Efferent projections of the nucleus accumbens include fibers to the hypothalamus, the ventral tegmental area, the substantia nigra, amygdala, the subpallidal region and the globus pallidus. The afferent and efferent pathways of the nucleus accumbens has been implicated in numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, drug addiction, Parkinson, Alzheimer and Huntington diseases. Conclusion: The nucleus accumbens is a complex and fascinating structure that has great influence over a variety of human behaviors. Knowing afferent and efferent pathways of the nucleus accumbens will guide to the physicians for diagnosis and treatment of the neurological and psychiatric disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]