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Agricultural policy s support to farmers, measured in real terms, differs considerably across Russian regions. What explains these large differences in regional agricultural support? We argue that traditional approaches of agricultural economics cannot fully explain this variation and we draw upon the political eocnomy literature. In particular, we explain allocation and distribution of agricultural subsidies studying the incentives of federal and regional politicians. Electoral pressures arising from competing with other political parties may push federal politicians to target either loyal or easily swayed voters and regional ones to strategically target special interst groups. Vertical organization of the Russian dominant party may generate perverse accountability links between local governors and regional agricultural interest groups. We utlize a unique dataset on the agricultural subsidies in 2008-2015 in order to test the hypotheses. The evidence suggests that federal government targets swing regions in distributing agricultural subsidies and local governments are more likely to allocate larger co-funding shares facing higher political competition in the region. In addition, regions with better organized large-scale agricultural producers and elected governors are more successful in maximizing obtained agricultural subsidies from the federal level. Acknowledgement

This article analyses the impact of a water allocation priority policy for a specific crop on farmers’ acreage allocation to different crops. To accomplish this, a system of crop acreage demands conditional on output yields, prices of variable inputs and levels of quasi-fixed inputs is estimated. The analysis based on a two-year farm household panel data from an arid region in northwest China. The results show that the water policy change results in a lower elasticity of land demand not only for Atlantic potatoes (i.e. the preferential crop), but also for the other crops. Acreage allocation to grains differs from other crops due to their use within the farm household. Moreover, the estimated elasticities of quasi-fixed inputs reveal that whereas the area of cash crops and Atlantic potatoes increases with increased use of own labour before the policy change, it does so only for cash crops after the policy change. With respect to own and exchanged labour Atlantic potatoes behave like grains and regular potatoes after the policy change.

The proliferation of private quality and assurance schemes in international trade is defining market access in high value chains. The prime concern for small-scale producers is whether price premiums are realizable due to compliance. Using French beans marketing, the authors find that GlobalGAP certification, produce traceability, number of suppliers, competition for supplies, direct procurement, a good road network, and supply contracts have positive farmgate price effects for smallholders. Potential policy implications are drawn.

EU farmers face increasing requests to comply with legal as well as private agribusiness and retail standards. Both requests potentially raise farmer’s administrative burden. This paper discusses the potential synergies between cross-compliance and third-party certification schemes. In selected aspects cross-compliance and several certification schemes ask similar measures. However, both regulatory approaches differ considerably in other areas. The heterogeneous nature of the various certification schemes in place prevent a general conclusion. As a tendency systemic standards like organic agriculture provide the largest overlap with cross-compliance. Certificates of origin, on the opposite side, have no relation with cross-compliance.

While internationally, large-scale forestry projects have gained in importance for climate change mitigation, the implementation of such projects, particularly in regions with smallholder forestry like Southeast and East Asia, faces various obstacles. The organization of smallholders is one crucial element for the success of these projects. Hereby, an equal distribution of benefits is generally considered vital. It will support a balanced socio-economic development in poor rural areas, guaranteeing long-term success and a sustained stock of carbon sinks. China presents an especially interesting case of smallholder forestry. The conversion from collectively-managed to household-management forest in 2003, which is, however, still collectively owned, has increasedthe number of participants in large-scale forestry projects substantially. Simultaneously, the government has been promoting plantations for biodiesel production from oil seeds, such as jatropha and tea oil tree (camellia oleifera). Using the case of a governmental program for tea oil tree plantations, as well as the case of a European Investment bank project, this research inquires the distribution of benefits under their respective institutional arrangements and organization of smallholders. Empirical research was undertaken in three counties of Jiangxi province, China, in 2011, consisting of semi-structured stakeholder interviews and a survey with 308 smallholders. Results show that, on the village level, we can distinguish four implementation schemesof tea oil tree plantations, i.e. individual, partnership, collective, and cooperation with company. Distinguishing factors for these schemes are property rights relations, monetary input distribution, productive resource distribution and extension services. As this research will show, these criteria impact the distribution mechanisms of output sharing, respectively generating different distribution effects for poor smallholders. Results will be important also for other countries where smallholder forestry is prevalent, and carbon sink projects are to be implemented.

The economic transformation in countries of Central and Eastern Europe as well as Asia resulted in a diverse picture of change in agricultural labour use. Based on a measure of sectoral labour adjustment, the paper explores the determinants of occupational labour flows paying special attention to the impact of institutions. Annual rates of occupational migration between agriculture and non-agriculture over the period 1978-2005 are calculated for a panel of 30 transition countries. Annual migration from agriculture ranges from outflows of nearly 8 percent of the agricultural labour force to immigration into agriculture about 9 percent on average. Fixed-effects panel models are used to explain the annual intersectoral labour flow. The most important determinants of the migration rate are the relative income differences between non-agricultural and agricultural sectors, the relative magnitude of agricultural labour, the development of terms of trade and the level of unemployment. Furthermore, the speed of economic reforms and the way of land privatization affect occupational migration significantly. An increasing intersectoral income difference points to still existing mobility restrictions for agricultural labour in some of the countries analyzed.

This paper presents evidence on the impact of individual as well as regional characteristics on changes in fat, protein, alcohol and cigarette consumption, and on diet’s diversity between 1994 and 2004. The results from a dynamic econometric model suggest that among individual determinants such as initial levels of consumption, gender, education, household income changes, and access to a garden plot all have a significant impact on the changes in consumption behavior in Russia. Regarding the macroeconomic variables, inflation has a significant impact on changes in alcohol and cigarettes consumption, while unemployment changes significantly impact smoking behavior. Russian consumers only respond to own price changes of fat and protein, but do not respond to own prices for alcohol and cigarettes. Analysis of subsamples conditional on initial consumption behavior reveals significant heterogeneity in consumption patterns, which is important for effective policy targeting different population groups in achieving healthier lifestyle choices in Russia

A standard model of labour adjustment in times of economic transition assumes a constant impact of variables like sectoral income differences, unemployment or the relative size of the agricultural sector. This paper shows for a panel of 29 European and Asian transition countries that the standard model fails to take the heterogeneity of determinants of sectoral labour adjustment properly into account. A random coefficients model reveals quite heterogeneous influences of the intersectoral income ratio, the relative size of agricultural employment, the unemployment rate, and the general level of economic development on a measure of sectoral labour adjustment across transition countries. Moreover, for selected determinants the estimated coefficients show opposing signs.

This paper examines the changes in nutritional behavior of Russian adults over the ten-year transition period, between 1994 and 2004. We present evidence on the impact of individual as well as regional characteristics on changes in fat, protein, alcohol and cigarette consumption, and on diversity of diet. The results from a dynamic empirical model suggest that among microeconomic determinants, initial levels of consumption, gender, holding a university degree, and having access to a garden plot have a significant impact on the changes in consumption behavior in Russia. Regarding the macroeconomic variables, economic growth has a significant impact on changes in fat and protein consumption and on alcohol use, while unemployment changes significantly impact protein intake, alcohol consumption and the diversity of diet.

This paper examines changes in aspects of the lifestyle of Russian adults between 1994 and 2004. We present evidence on the impact of individual as well as regional characteristics on changes in fat, protein, alcohol and cigarette consumption, and on diet’s diversity. The results from a dynamic econometric model suggest that among individual determinants, initial levels of consumption, gender, holding a university degree, household income changes and having access to a garden plot have a significant impact on the changes in consumption behavior in Russia. Regarding the macroeconomic variables, inflation has a significant impact on changes in alcohol and cigarettes consumption, while unemployment changes significantly impact smoking behavior. Analysis of subsamples conditional on initial consumption behavior reveals significant differences in consumption patterns, which is important for effective policy targeting different population groups in achieving healthier lifestyle choices in Russia.

Korruption wird häufig als Ursache fehlender Fortschritte im Entwicklungsprozess vieler Volkswirtschaften angesehen. Entsprechend steht Korruptionsbekämpfung bei der Weltbank und allen wichtigen multilateralen Organisationen der wirtschaftlichen Zusammenarbeit an vorderster Stelle der Agenda. Trotz einiger ehrlicher Anstrengungen von Regierungen und Politikern gegen Korruption vorzugehen, muss festgestellt werden, dass die Erfolge in der Bekämpfung von Korruption lediglich bescheiden sind. Korruption ist offenbar ein sehr persistentes Phänomen. Hat sich korruptes Verhalten in einer Gesellschaft einmal ausgebreitet, ist es kaum wieder zu eliminieren, die Gesellschaft ist in einer Situation mit verbreiteter Korruption ¿gefangen¿ (¿Lock-in Effekt¿). Der vorliegende Beitrag widmet sich den Ursachen von Korruption, wobei besonderes Augenmerk auf jene Erklärungen gelegt werden soll, welche für die Persistenz der Korruption bzw das Auftreten von ¿Lock-in Effekten¿ bedeutsam sind.

Diese Studie untersucht die Dynamik und Persistenz der Korruption im internationalen Vergleich. Dazu werden fünf verschiedene subjektive Korruptionsindikatoren mit Hilfe zwei verschiedener Methoden ausgewertet. Die Ergebnisse der Kerndichteschätzung zeigen eine zweigipflige Verteilung der Korruption im Ländervergleich. Relativ viele Länder weisen ein hohes Korruptionsniveau auf und wenige Länder ein sehr niedriges. Mittels dynamischer Fixed-effects- und Random-effects-Modelle wird die Dynamik der Korruption analysiert. Das gegenwärtige Korruptionsniveau wird statistisch signifikant von dem Korruptionsniveau in der Vergangenheit beeinflusst.

In the last years the usual clearance of the European agricultural market with the use of export refunds was heavily discussed. The consequences for the agricultural producers in West and southern Africa are in the centre of interest. There are two opposed points of view: One arguing that the European Unions (EU) export policy reduces the prices on these markets and relieves high burden on local producers. Contrary, the other position claims that refunds do not influence local prices. This study focuses on the effects of subventions of beef export on EU market share. A Fixed Effects and a Random Effects model for 26 African countries during the period 1988-1999 is used. The results clearly show a highly significant positive impact of refund rate. With its export policy the EU rises its market share and edges out other competitors.

While internationally, large-scale forestry projects have gained in importance for climate change mitigation, the implementation of such projects, particularly in regions with smallholder forestry like Southeast and East Asia, faces various obstacles. The organization of smallholders is one crucial element for the success of these projects. Hereby, an equal distribution of benefits is generally considered vital. It will support a balanced socio-economic development in poor rural areas, guaranteeing long-term success and a sustained stock of carbon sinks. China presents an especially interesting case of smallholder forestry. The conversion from collectively-managed to household-management forest in 2003, which is, however, still collectively owned, has increasedthe number of participants in large-scale forestry projects substantially. Simultaneously, the government has been promoting plantations for biodiesel production from oil seeds, such as jatropha and tea oil tree (camellia oleifera). Using the case of a governmental program for tea oil tree plantations, as well as the case of a European Investment bank project, this research inquires the distribution of benefits under their respective institutional arrangements and organization of smallholders. Empirical research was undertaken in three counties of Jiangxi province, China, in 2011, consisting of semi-structured stakeholder interviews and a survey with 308 smallholders. Results show that, on the village level, we can distinguish four implementation schemesof tea oil tree plantations, i.e. individual, partnership, collective, and cooperation with company. Distinguishing factors for these schemes are property rights relations, monetary input distribution, productive resource distribution and extension services. As this research will show, these criteria impact the distribution mechanisms of output sharing, respectively generating different distribution effects for poor smallholders. Results will be important also for other countries where smallholder forestry is prevalent, and carbon sink projects are to be implemented.