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Competing Interests: The author declares no conflict of interest.

This article has introduced the reader to research ethics. In order to to show the development of the codes of ethics and guidelines in use today, it has briefly reviewed the most infamous unethical research studies. Learning from these traumatic and often cruel moments i history gave impetus to the development of international ethical guidelines, driving research conduct and protecting the rights and safety of those participating in studies today. Research within the NHS would not exist without the hundreds of thousands of patients who volunteer their time and indeed their 'selves' to research . Researchers have a duty to those patients, to treat them with the dignity, respect and care they would afford any patient. In addition to serving as researchers, they must also act as patient advocates to ensure that every stage of the research process embraces all elements of ethical codes and frameworks and patients should expect nothing less.

Hepatitis has been a major plague of mankind. The history of the discovery of causative viruses is one of the most fascinating scientific adventures of this half century. Individualization of several types of hepatitis only emerged after world war two. Their identification has been associated with milestones which revolutionized medicine and public health. The discovery of HBV brought the first ever vaccine not prepared by tissue culture but initially directly from plasma and soon the first vaccine produced by genetic engineering. HBV vaccine proved to be the first "anti-cancer" vaccine by preventing hepatocellular carcinoma and practically eradicating it from childhood in Taiwan. Successful vaccines became also available for HAV and more recently HEV. The discovery of HCV in 1989 opened a new era since it was the first virus was identified by a direct molecular approach. Two billion people are infected with HBV and 350 million are chronic carriers of the virus. The extraordinary effectiveness of HBV vaccination was best illustrated in Taiwan and Singapore where in less than 2 decades HBs Ag carriers dropped from 9,1% to 2,7% and HCC from 27% to 17%. Successful development of nucleos(t)ides analogs make it now possible to fully control disease progression with a daily pill long term therapy. The progress in HCV therapy has been even more spectacular and successful treatment jumped from 6 % with interferon alone in 1986 to more than 80% in 2013 with triple combination therapies. Remarkably chronic hepatitis C is the only chronic disease which is curable. It will be soon possible to eradicate HCV infection with, an all oral, daily single pill (containing several molecules) for 3 to 6 months which will cure over 90% of patients. This unprecedented therapeutic victory benefiting hundred millions of people matches the triumphs over small pox, polio and tuberculosis. The next 10 years should undoubtedly witness cure or full control over all forms of acute and chronic hepatitis., (© 2013 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and GB virus type C (GBV-C) are associated with impaired T cell function despite the fact that HCV replicates in hepatocytes and GBV-C in a small proportion of lymphocytes. Recently, we showed that HCV and GBV-C E2-envelope proteins reduce T cell activation via the T cell receptor (TCR) by competing for phosphorylation with a critical kinase in the TCR signaling cascade (Lck). E2 interfered with TCR signaling in E2 expressing cells and in bystander cells. The bystander effect was mediated by virus particles and extracellular microvesicular particles (exosomes). Multiple kinase substrate sites are predicted to reside on viral structural proteins and based on bioinformatic predictions, many RNA virus pathogens may interfere with TCR signaling via a similar mechanism. Identification of T cell inhibitory effects of virus structural proteins may provide novel approaches to enhance the immunogenicity and memory of viral vaccines.

The 11th Australasian Autoimmunity Workshop was held in Melbourne, Australia from July 6-8, 2007 organized by the Monash University Autoimmunity Network. The workshops, founded by the late Kevin Lafferty, are a chance for Australasians interested in research into autoimmune disease to present and discuss their work. This workshop also was a chance to acknowledge Ian Mackay, a pioneer clinician-scientist who has made major contributions to our understanding of autoimmune diseases. Friends, colleagues and former students attended the Workshop and acknowledged Ian's expertise and mentorship. This edition of the Journal of Autoimmunity pays tribute to Ian Mackay. It features articles from attendees at the workshop, and contributions from some of Ian's past students and past and current collaborators.

History of the concept and definition of hepatitis is briefly reviewed. The landmarks of progress are based on better understanding of liver structure and introduction of biopsy techniques to follow the pathologic alterations in acute and chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, dysplasia and hepatoma. Modern achievements are recognition of the etiologic agents of viral hepatitis A through G, viral nucleic acid sequencing, viral genome and gene products leading to development of immunologic tests to etiologic diagnosis. Viral particles are visualized by electron microscopy. In tissue, localization of viral products is obtained by histochemical, immunologic and by in situ hybridization methods. Diagnostic criteria for each of the viral etiologic agents is reviewed, as is cirrhosis and its occurrence in viral hepatitis and alcohol abuse.

Comparison of hepatitis B vaccine policy with other cases in the past is complicated by the restricted modes of transmission of this disease, which affects relatively few people in the UK. Still, considerations of cost, fear of contamination, divisions of opinion within the medical profession, and regional dispersal of authority are all factors--analysed for other vaccines--which help to explain the limited UK central policy on hepatitis B immunization observed through the 1980s. An important issue, in previous debates on vaccine policies, has been the conflict between public health interests and the rights of individuals to eschew health interventions imposed by the state. It is argued here that this question fed into hepatitis B vaccine policy in an oblique manner, via policy on screening for hepatitis B in the 1970s; minimal screening mainly of selected groups of health workers was favoured, maximizing individual rights. Changes to hepatitis B vaccine policy can be traced, linked with international policy, pharmaceutical company pressure, advances in vaccine technology, and questions of legal liability. The most accurate predictor for vaccine policy appears to have been screening policy. Will this apply to AIDS, which is epidemiologically similar to hepatitis B?