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Background Malaria is the single largest cause of illness in Uganda. Since the year 2008, the Global Fund has rolled out several funding streams for malaria control in Uganda. Among these are mechanism aimed to increase availability and affordability of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs). This paper examines the availability and affordability of first line malaria treatment and diagnostics in the private sector in Uganda between 2007 and 2018. MethodsCross-sectional surveys were conducted between 2007 and 2018, based on a standardized World Health Organization/Health Action International (WHO/HAI) methodology adapted to assess availability, patient prices and affordability of ACTs in private retail outlets. A minimum of 30 outlets were surveyed per year. Availability, patient prices and affordability of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs) was also tracked from 2012 following the rollout of the test and treat policy in 2010. The median patient prices for the ACTs and mRDTs were calculated in US dollars (USD). Affordability was assessed by computing number of days’ wages the lowest paid government worker (LPGW) had to pay to purchase a treatment course for acute malaria. ResultsAvailability of artemether/lumefantrine (A/L), the first line ACT, increased from 85% to 100% in the private sector facilities during the study period. However, there was low availability of diagnostic tests in private sector facilities ranging between 13% (2012) and 37% (2018). There was a large reduction in patient prices for an adult treatment course of A/L from USD 8.8 in 2007 to USD 1.1 in 2018, while the price of diagnostics remained mostly stagnant at USD 0.5. Affordability of ACTs and mRDTs was below one day’s wages for LPGW.Conclusion Availability of ACTs in the private sector medicines retail outlets increased to 100% while the availability of diagnostics remained low. Although malaria treatment was affordable, the price of diagnostics remained stagnant and increased the cumulative cost of malaria management. Malaria stakeholders should consolidate the gains made and consider inclusion of the diagnostic kits in the subsidy program.

Background Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are the primary tools for malaria prevention in Africa. It is not known whether reductions in malaria can be sustained after IRS is discontinued. The aim of this study was to assess changes in malaria morbidity in a historically high transmission area of Uganda where IRS was discontinued after a four-year period of effective control followed by a universal LLIN distribution campaign. Methods Individual-level malaria surveillance data were collected from one outpatient department and one inpatient setting in Apac District, Uganda from July 2009 through November 2015. Rounds of IRS were delivered approximately every six months from February 2010 through May 2014 followed by universal LLIN distribution in June 2014. Temporal changes in the malaria test positivity rate (TPR) were estimated during and after IRS using interrupted time series analyses, controlling for age, rainfall, and autocorrelation. Results Data include 65,421 outpatient visits and 13,955 pediatric inpatient admissions for which a diagnostic test for malaria was performed. In outpatients under five years, baseline TPR was 60-80% followed by a rapid and then sustained decrease to 15-30%. Over 4-18 months following discontinuation of IRS, absolute TPR values increased by an average of 3.29% per month (95% CI 2.01-4.57%), returning to baseline levels. Similar trends were seen in outpatients over five years of age and pediatric admissions. Conclusions Discontinuation of IRS in a historically high transmission intensity area was associated with a rapid increase in malaria morbidity to pre-IRS levels.

Background In the midst of success with malaria reduction in Uganda, there are areas that still have high prevalence of malaria parasitaemia. This project aimed at investigating factors associated with this prevalence and its relationship with anaemia. Methods This is a secondary data analysis of the 2014 Malaria Indicator Survey dataset of children under 5 years. All had a blood sample taken by finger or heel prick for determination of malaria parasitaemia and estimation of haemoglobin level for anaemia status. The main outcome was the presence of malaria parasitaemia by microscopy and independent variables included: age, gender, residence (urban vs rural), use of a long-lasting, insecticidal-treated net, indoor residual spraying (IRS) of household in the past 6 months, mother’s highest education level, mother heard malaria prevention message in the past 6 months, and household wealth status. Results The analysis included 4930 children and of these, 938 (19.04%: 95% CI 16.63–21.71) tested positive for malaria parasites. Malaria parasite prevalence significantly increased from 11.08 (95% CI 9.12–13.40) among children with no anaemia to 50.99% (95% CI 39.13–62.74) with severe anaemia (Chi-square p-value = 0.001). Additionally, prevalence significantly rose from the youngest age group (under 6 months) by 1.62 times (95% CI 1.04–2.52, p = 0.033) among the age group of 7–12 months and to four times (95% CI 2.57–6.45, p = 0.001) among those who were between 49 and 59 months. The following were associated with reduced parasitaemia: IRS use (AOR 0.23 [0.08–0.61], p = 0.004), educated mothers (primary AOR 0.75 [0.59–0.96], p = 0.023 to tertiary AOR 0.11 [0.02–0.53], 0.006), mother heard malaria message (AOR 0.78 [0.62–0.99], p = 0.037), and wealthier households (richest AOR 0.17 [0.08–0.36], p = 0.001). Conclusions Increasing malaria parasite prevalence among children under 5 years is still related to increasing age and severity of anaemia even in the context of decreasing malaria prevalence. Designing interventions that include the use of IRS and behaviour change communication tailored to include older children, especially in areas with high malaria prevalence, could be of added value. All this should be done in an environment that improves the socio-economic status and equity of such populations.

Background The Uganda National Malaria Control Programme recommends the use of intermittent preventive therapy in pregnancy with sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (SP) to prevent malaria, however, there is overwhelming evidence of low uptake of this intervention. This study, therefore, sought to examine the factors associated with taking two or more doses of therapy among women who had had the most recent live birth. Methods This was a secondary data analysis of the 2014 Malaria Indicator Survey dataset. The outcome was the use of two or more doses of SP for the most recent live birth while independent variables included; age, highest education attained, residence (rural and urban), use of radio and community health teams for malaria related messages, knowledge of taking SP and use of LLINS to prevent malaria, household wealth, skilled attendant seen at ANC and number of children the woman has. Results Of the 1820 women included in the final analysis, 822 (45.16 %) women took two or more doses of SP. Women who knew that this therapy was used to prevent malaria and those who had been seen by a skilled attendant were 10.72 times [Adjusted OR (95 % CI): 10.72 (7.62–15.08), p-value = 0.001] and 3.19 times [Adjusted OR (95 % CI): 3.19 (1.26–8.07), p-value = 0.015] more likely to take at least two doses as compared to those who did not know about this therapy and those seen by unskilled attendants, respectively. Conclusion This study shows that knowledge among women that SP is a medication used for malaria prevention during pregnancy increases the uptake of two or more doses of this therapy among pregnant women. This highlights the importance of behaviour change communication focused on IPTp uptake that can be complemented by having skilled personnel attending to pregnant women at the antenatal clinic.

Background Uganda conducted an LLIN mass distribution campaign in 2013 with the goal of achieving universal coverage. Using data from the 2014 malaria indicator survey, this analysis estimated the proportion of the population with access to an LLIN that slept under one the night before the survey and factors associated with not using an LLIN in households that had achieved universal coverage. Methods This was a secondary data analysis using the 2014 malaria indicator survey dataset. The outcome was use of an LLIN among households that achieved universal coverage, while independent variables include age, gender, number of household members, residence, number of sleeping rooms, spraying of rooms with insecticide, number of children under 5 years of age, number of women of child-bearing age, relationship structure and community distribution of ant-malarial medicine. Results Overall, 3361 (62 %) households of the 5345 achieved universal coverage and were included in the analysis giving a total population of 14,450 individuals. Of these, 11,884 (80.10 %) reported to have slept under an LLIN the night before the survey. Children between 6 and 14 years were significantly less likely to use an LLIN when compared to those under 5 years (75.26 vs 83.12 %), [adjusted OR, 1.29 (1.11–1.49), p = 0.001]. The odds of not using an LLIN, significantly increased from households with five members when compared to those that had one member (79.53 vs 84.88 %), [adjusted OR, 2.16 (1.38–3.38), p = 0.001] and rising even further in households with six or more members (78.04 vs 84.88 %), [OR, 2.27 (1.36–3.71), p = 0.003]. Conclusions This analysis has showed that 80 % of the population used an LLIN among households that achieved universal coverage following the 2013 mass distribution campaign, especially among children under 5 years, an operational success in this category. However, children between 6 and 14 years and individuals from households with five or more numbers are less likely to use the LLINs. In order to improve usage in these categories, it may require re-focusing the behaviour change communication message to be all-inclusive, especially in era of universal coverage, and to increase the number of LLINs distributed in households with more than four members during future mass distribution campaigns, respectively.

Background Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying of insecticide (IRS) are the primary vector control interventions used to prevent malaria in Africa. Although both interventions are effective in some settings, high-quality evidence is rarely available to evaluate their effectiveness following deployment by a national malaria control program. In Uganda, we measured changes in key malaria indicators following universal LLIN distribution in three sites, with the addition of IRS at one of these sites. Methods and Findings Comprehensive malaria surveillance was conducted from October 1, 2011, to March 31, 2016, in three sub-counties with relatively low (Walukuba), moderate (Kihihi), and high transmission (Nagongera). Between 2013 and 2014, universal LLIN distribution campaigns were conducted in all sites, and in December 2014, IRS with the carbamate bendiocarb was initiated in Nagongera. High-quality surveillance evaluated malaria metrics and mosquito exposure before and after interventions through (a) enhanced health-facility-based surveillance to estimate malaria test positivity rate (TPR), expressed as the number testing positive for malaria/number tested for malaria (number of children tested for malaria: Walukuba = 42,833, Kihihi = 28,790, and Nagongera = 38,690); (b) cohort studies to estimate the incidence of malaria, expressed as the number of episodes per person-year [PPY] at risk (number of children observed: Walukuba = 340, Kihihi = 380, and Nagongera = 361); and (c) entomology surveys to estimate household-level human biting rate (HBR), expressed as the number of female Anopheles mosquitoes collected per house-night of collection (number of households observed: Walukuba = 117, Kihihi = 107, and Nagongera = 107). The LLIN distribution campaign substantially increased LLIN coverage levels at the three sites to between 65.0% and 95.5% of households with at least one LLIN. In Walukuba, over the 28-mo post-intervention period, universal LLIN distribution was associated with no change in the incidence of malaria (0.39 episodes PPY pre-intervention versus 0.20 post-intervention; adjusted rate ratio [aRR] = 1.02, 95% CI 0.36–2.91, p = 0.97) and non-significant reductions in the TPR (26.5% pre-intervention versus 26.2% post-intervention; aRR = 0.70, 95% CI 0.46–1.06, p = 0.09) and HBR (1.07 mosquitoes per house-night pre-intervention versus 0.71 post-intervention; aRR = 0.41, 95% CI 0.14–1.18, p = 0.10). In Kihihi, over the 21-mo post-intervention period, universal LLIN distribution was associated with a reduction in the incidence of malaria (1.77 pre-intervention versus 1.89 post-intervention; aRR = 0.65, 95% CI 0.43–0.98, p = 0.04) but no significant change in the TPR (49.3% pre-intervention versus 45.9% post-intervention; aRR = 0.83, 95% 0.58–1.18, p = 0.30) or HBR (4.06 pre-intervention versus 2.44 post-intervention; aRR = 0.71, 95% CI 0.30–1.64, p = 0.40). In Nagongera, over the 12-mo post-intervention period, universal LLIN distribution was associated with a reduction in the TPR (45.3% pre-intervention versus 36.5% post-intervention; aRR = 0.82, 95% CI 0.76–0.88, p < 0.001) but no significant change in the incidence of malaria (2.82 pre-intervention versus 3.28 post-intervention; aRR = 1.10, 95% 0.76–1.59, p = 0.60) or HBR (41.04 pre-intervention versus 20.15 post-intervention; aRR = 0.87, 95% CI 0.31–2.47, p = 0.80). The addition of three rounds of IRS at ~6-mo intervals in Nagongera was followed by clear decreases in all outcomes: incidence of malaria (3.25 pre-intervention versus 0.63 post-intervention; aRR = 0.13, 95% CI 0.07–0.27, p < 0.001), TPR (37.8% pre-intervention versus 15.0% post-intervention; aRR = 0.54, 95% CI 0.49–0.60, p < 0.001), and HBR (18.71 pre-intervention versus 3.23 post-intervention; aRR = 0.29, 95% CI 0.17–0.50, p < 0.001). High levels of pyrethroid resistance were documented at all three study sites. Limitations of the study included the observational study design, the lack of contemporaneous control groups, and that the interventions were implemented under programmatic conditions. Conclusions Universal distribution of LLINs at three sites with varying transmission intensity was associated with modest declines in the burden of malaria for some indicators, but the addition of IRS at the highest transmission site was associated with a marked decline in the burden of malaria for all indicators. In highly endemic areas of Africa with widespread pyrethroid resistance, IRS using alternative insecticide formulations may be needed to achieve substantial gains in malaria control., In this prospective observational study, Grant Dorsey and colleagues measure changes in malaria burden after long-lasting insecticidal net distribution and indoor residual spraying at three sites of in Uganda., Author Summary Why Was This Study Done? Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), which prevent mosquitoes from biting people while they sleep, and indoor residual spraying of insecticides (IRS) in houses, which prevents mosquitoes from resting in houses, are the main tools used to prevent malaria in Africa. Although LLINs and IRS have been shown to be effective, changes in the behavior of mosquitoes and people as well as the emergence of mosquitoes resistant to insecticides could compromise the benefits of these interventions. Recently the government of Uganda distributed free LLINs throughout the country and began IRS in selected areas. In this “real world” setting, it is important to monitor for changes in the burden of malaria following the scale-up of LLIN distribution and IRS. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? The researchers conducted comprehensive malaria surveillance between October 1, 2011, and March 31, 2016, at three sites in Uganda that differed in the intensity of malaria transmission. Between 2013 and 2014, LLINs were distributed to the entire population at all three sites, and in December 2014, IRS with an insecticide different from that used in the LLINs was started in the site with the highest level of malaria transmission. The researchers found that following LLIN distribution, there were only modest declines in some measures of malaria burden at the three sites, and no changes in other measures. In contrast, following the addition of IRS at the highest transmission site, all measures of malaria burden declined dramatically. The research also documented a high level of resistance to the type of insecticide used in LLINS at all three sites. What Do These Findings Mean? These findings suggest that in countries like Uganda, which has a heavy burden of malaria, LLINs alone may not be adequate to substantially drive down the burden of malaria, and the addition of IRS using a different insecticide may be needed to have a major impact. However, it should be noted that IRS is more expensive and harder to implement than distributing LLINs, and generally needs to be repeated every 6–12 months to have a sustained effect.