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Freshwater salinization is an emerging global problem impacting safe drinking water, ecosystem health and biodiversity, infrastructure corrosion, and food production. Freshwater salinization originates from diverse anthropogenic and geologic sources including road salts, human-accelerated weathering, sewage, urban construction, fertilizer, mine drainage, resource extraction, water softeners, saltwater intrusion, and evaporative concentration of ions due to hydrologic alterations and climate change. The complex interrelationships between salt ions and chemical, biological, and geologic parameters and consequences on the natural, social, and built environment are called Freshwater Salinization Syndrome (FSS). Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of salinization issues (past, present, and future), and we investigate drivers and solutions. We analyze the expanding global magnitude and scope of FSS including its discovery in humid regions, connections to human-accelerated weathering and mobilization of ‘chemical cocktails.’ We also present data illustrating: (1) increasing trends in salt ion concentrations in some of the world’s major freshwaters, including critical drinking water supplies; (2) decreasing trends in nutrient concentrations in rivers due to regulations but increasing trends in salinization, which have been due to lack of adequate management and regulations; (3) regional trends in atmospheric deposition of salt ions and storage of salt ions in soils and groundwater, and (4) applications of specific conductance as a proxy for tracking sources and concentrations of groups of elements in freshwaters. We prioritize FSS research needs related to better understanding: (1) effects of saltwater intrusion on ecosystem processes, (2) potential health risks from groundwater contamination of home wells, (3) potential risks to clean and safe drinking water sources, (4) economic and safety impacts of infrastructure corrosion, (5) alteration of biodiversity and ecosystem functions, and (6) application of high-frequency sensors in state-of-the art monitoring and management. We evaluate management solutions using a watershed approach spanning air, land, and water to explore variations in sources, fate and transport of different salt ions (e.g. monitoring of atmospheric deposition of ions, stormwater management, groundwater remediation, and managing road runoff). We also identify tradeoffs in management approaches such as unanticipated retention and release of chemical cocktails from urban stormwater management best management practices (BMPs) and unintended consequences of alternative deicers on water quality. Overall, we show that FSS has direct and indirect effects on mobilization of diverse chemical cocktails of ions, metals, nutrients, organics, and radionuclides in freshwaters with mounting impacts. Our comprehensive review suggests what could happen if FSS were not managed into the future and evaluates strategies for reducing increasing risks to clean and safe drinking water, human health, costly infrastructure, biodiversity, and critical ecosystem services.

Background/Aims Baricitinib is an oral, reversible and selective inhibitor of JAK1 and JAK2 tyrosine kinases. It was approved for use in 2017 by NICE for the treatment of moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Considering the current risk of COVID-19, the BSR have advocated the use of short-acting drugs such as baricitinib when escalating treatment in RA. As real-world data is limited, we aimed to explore the efficacy of baricitinib in clinical practice. Methods Observational data was collected retrospectively for patients at the Dudley Group NHSFT with RA (ACR/EULAR criteria) who had received at least one dose of baricitinib prior to 1st October 2019, with a follow up period to 1st October 2020. Patients were identified from a local biologics database. Further data was identified from patients’ medical records including, demographics, features of RA, previous RA therapy history and disease activity scores (DAS28) at 0, 6 and 12 months. Data was input into an Excel spreadsheet with subsequent analysis conducted using SPSS Version26. Results We identified 26 RA patients (77% female) treated with baricitinib; mean age 61.6 (SD 14.6) years and median disease duration of 12.1 (IQR 5.8-18.4) years. Rheumatoid factor and anti-CCP antibody were positive in 73% and 65% respectively. 35% (n = 9) of patients were biologically naïve, in whom baricitinib was chosen due to needle-phobia (n = 7), or where anti-TNF drugs were considered inappropriate (bronchiectasis, ANA positivity). Mean DAS28 (SD) scores at baseline, 6 and 12 months were 5.9(0.8), 2.8(0.9) and 2.7(1.3) respectively, with significant reduction from baseline to both 6 and 12 months (P < 0.001). A drop of ≥ 1.2 in DAS28 was recorded in 94% of patients with complete data at 6 months (n = 18, 4 missing, 4 discontinued). At 6 and 12 months, 85% and 81% of patients remained on Baricitinib. In total five patients discontinued Baricitinib due to side effects or tolerability issues. Reasons for discontinuation did not include thromboembolic events, zoster or serious infections. When comparing naïve and non-naïve groups, there was no significant difference in age, sex or disease duration. The number of previous biologics used by patients were 1(n = 6), 2(n = 3), ≥3(n = 8). Biologically naive compared to non-naïve patients had a higher DAS28 at baseline, (Mean [SD]) (6.2[0.9] versus 5.7[0.8] NS) but lower at 6 months (2.1[1.6] versus 3.1[1.1] P = 0.023) and greater DAS improvement at 6months (-4.4[1.2] versus -2.5[0.9] P < 0.002). Conclusion We observed that up to 94% of patients responded to baricitinib with a mean DAS improvement at 6 months of -3.1, biologic naïve patients doing best. Drug survival at 12 months was 81%. These trends are comparable to findings in clinical trials. However, due to our small sample size, the findings are vulnerable to type 1 and 2 errors and should be interpreted with caution. Disclosure H.J.S. Vardon: None. K.M.J. Douglas: None.

Dear Editor Based on our personal experiences of online Open Book Examinations (OBE) unexpectedly replacing some Closed Book Examinations (CBE) following the first coronavirus pandemic ‘peak’ in th...

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(1905). II. The measurement of the potential of the electrodes in stationary liquids. The determination of changes of concentration at the cathode during electrolysis. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science: Vol. 9, No. 49, pp. 20-41.

In a paper on reaction-velocities in heterogeneous systems, Nernst has recently put forward the view that all chemical reactions taking place on the boundary of two phases proceed to equilibrium practically instantaneously, and that the velocities actually observed are simply those with which diffusion and convection renew the reacting material at the boundary. As a special instance of heterogeneous reactions, he mentions catalytic decompositions due to finely divided particles, such as colloidal metals, and he believes it probable that the kinetics of these reactions can be deduced from the assumption that chemical equilibrium remains permanently established on the surface of the particles.

The author has found that lead which has been allowed to solidify in contact with glass will, if free from oxide, form a vacuum-tight joint with the latter. Owing to the very great firmness with which the metal adheres, and owing to its great plasticity, these joints can stand temperature changes without damage. When applied to quartz, the joints are usually made inside a tube in conjuction with a molybdenum wire seal as follows: The tube is shaped so that the molybdenum wire can be placed loosely inside it. A short piece of the latter is later sealed into the quartz, whereas one of its ends projects a few millimetres into the space in which the lead seal is to be made. Connected with this space by a short capillary there is an upper chamber in which the piece of lead is placed. The air is first blown out with hydrogen, and the tube then closed at the top and evacuated to a pressure of a millimetre or two. The quartz is then softened and pinched on to the molybdenum wire. After this the lead is melted and allowed to filter from oxide through the capillary and run into the space shaped to receive it, which has been highly heated. Before it has solidified, the tube is broken at the top to allow the pressure of the atmosphere to force the lead well against the surface of the glass. The tube is then cut at a suitable place and a tinned leading-in wire introduced into the lead. Such seals have been successfully fitted to vacuum tubes, mercury lamps, &c., and when made as described have so far not been known to fail.

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The lamp shown was similar in general principle to the well-known mercury lamp. It is constructed of quartz glass. To start the lamp the metal is melted by means of a Bunsen burner, and the are struck by tilting. Before introduction into the lamp the metal is freed from oxide and dissolved gases by a special process of filtration while at the pump. It is prevented from adhering to the glass, which might lead to fracture, by the presence of a small amount of a loose powder in the lamp. The lamp gives a powerful light and once started will continue burning indefinitely.

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