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Urban green infrastructure (UGI) has been recognized as a promising approach to mitigating urban heat island (UHI); however, most of the previous studies are case-based and explore the effects of the existent landscape and its spatial configuration on UHI mitigation rather than modeling an optimized spatial pattern. We aimed to transcend the existing research logic (from case studies to obtain the patterns of the cooling effect of UGI, then propose implications for UHI mitigation) and established a hypothetical idealized urban thermal security pattern model (TSPurban). Based on two basic concepts deduced from the physical property of UGI—(threshold) size and cooling distance, as well as the simplifying assumptions we defined. Then, three proposed conceptual UGI types (ecological, efficient, and elementary—3E) and subtypes were used to frame the model. We deduced that the idealized TSPurban model conforms to a hierarchical hexagonal structure in theory and it can be calculated and applied, although it generally cannot be seen in the real world. The idealized TSPurban model can help us better-understanding UGI cooling effects when considering climate adaption planning and decision-making; it also serves as a novel pathway to study the cooling effects of UGI and mitigate the UHI effect.

In this article, drawing on the discursive psychology of Rom Harré, we show how mapping the exchange of words among people might disclose a complex reality; not merely that which farmers explicitly talk ‘about’ but the reality implicitly at stake within the communication. More specifically, we show how discourses involving modern farmers reveal an underlying placing in an abstract space, having sub-spaces defined by the life-orientation, sense of self and according self-positioning of modern people. In this way, we construct a road map of a set of ‘individualities’ characterizing the life of modern farmers: an individuality of citizenship, an individuality of geographies and an individuality of experience. Consequently, farmers face the problem that this multiplicity of individuality prevents them from communicating, as we will call it, univocally in the public by contrast to the univocal voices of other established social groups. We will analyse the structure of that problem by viewing diverse relations between the authority and the authenticity of different partners in the conversation on land use.

Context Excess use of nitrogen fertilizer in agricultural landscapes is a threat to aquatic ecosystems, with effects manifesting at the scale of watersheds encompassing many farms. Collaborative processes involving farmers may be needed to achieve policies and decisions that are legitimate and sustainable in the long-term. Doing so depends on how arguments, positions and opinions are negotiated among farmers. We tested how framing theory may contribute to understanding such negotiations. Objectives The study has two objectives: (1) to evaluate the outcome of a series of experiments using framing methodology for analyzing collective decision making processes in agricultural landscapes, and (2) to discuss the potentials of using framing theory in agricultural landscape and nitrogen planning. Methods Collaborative scenario workshops with local stakeholders were organized in six case areas in Denmark. In each of the cases a participatory process was facilitated. The purpose of these meetings was to involve farmers in finding solutions to reduce nitrogen loads to aquatic recipients. Results Ten different frames were identified. These explain a majority of the variation among opinions. Analysis show that frames were understood homogeneously by the informants, indicating that frames represent established models of thinking about the agro-environment. We provide a brief outline of the frames identified. Conclusions We conclude that framing theory holds the potential to clarify key discussion about formation of opinions and standpoints in discourse and debates about land use and nitrogen management. It is discussed how to further progress along this line of inquiry.

Urbanization has significantly transformed natural surfaces into impervious surfaces, which has subsequently disturbed the balance of the global surface thermal energy. However, key landscape dynamic transfer processes that can affect land surface temperature (LST) and regional thermal environment (RTE) remain poorly understood, especially in the context of urban agglomerations. Hence we selected one of the world's most rapidly urbanized regions – the Pearl-River-Delta Metropolitan Region (PRDR) located in southern China as the case. With the help of Google Cloud Computing, Markov model, and spatial analyses, we have further quantified the strong contributions of urbanization and urban agglomeration development to RTE dynamics and evolution. Specifically, we revealed (1) the cooling effects of ecological land loss and gain are significantly different, which provides evidence that the existing natural ecosystems (especially forests) are valuable for climatic adaptation because newly constructed ecological land does not provide the same cooling effect. (2) We found that the RTE is not only influenced by land cover patterns and process but also significantly dominated by the specific land conversion processes. (3) From 1995 to 2015 in the PRDR, built-up land increased significantly, while the ecological land was significantly reduced, and the isolated urban heat islands were gradually connected and interacted with each other, forming the regional heat island. (4) We also proposed that the relationship between urbanization rate and temperature (RLST) may conform to the Environmental Kuznets Curve. This study enhances the understanding of RTE dynamics and evolution in urban agglomeration and provides important insights into existing natural ecosystem protection and climate adaptation planning.

Public open space (POS) in Ankara reflects both the negative and positive aspects of urban change. Evolving public space development strategies in Ankara played a fundamental role in the protection, promotion, and enhancement of POS from 1923 to 2017. This study shows that while the POS development of the city was addressed as an integrative and comprehensive structure in the entire city by the Lörcher (1924–1925) and Jansen (1932) plans, the subsequent approaches to POS were more superficial, piecemeal, and simplistic.

Urban areas typically experience higher temperatures compared to surrounding rural areas that is known as the urban heat island effect (UHI). Urban greenery is capable of mitigating the UHI by creating microclimates that are lower in temperature than their surroundings, which are known as urban cooling islands (UCI). Previous studies have proved the effectiveness of UCI from different perspectives. However, a specific optimal level of landscape patch size at a regional scale that can be implemented by urban planners has not been identified. In this study, we estimated the optimal patch size in seven selected hot-humid Asian cities with the help of Google Cloud Computing, Python Programming, as well as spatial and statistical analysis. A two-tier (two optimal patch sizes) distribution of the threshold value of efficiency (TVoE) of urban trees in this region was found. Eight landscape-level indexes were used to explore the variance of TVoE. The percentage of landscape (PLAND), edge density (ED), mean landscape shape index (Shape_MN), mean fractal dimension (FRAC_MN), largest patch index (LPI), and mean Euclidian nearest-neighbor distance (ENN_MN) were found to have no significant correlation with TVoE. While the average normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI_MN) and average background temperature (BGT_MN) were found to be highly associated with the variance in TVoE. Further, a concept model that can simulate the effects of NDVI_MN and BGT_MN was also proposed. These findings extend the understanding of the UCI effect of urban trees as well as providing a basis for scientific climate adaption planning in this region.

Regulation of nitrogen (N) loss from the agri-environment is a global challenge with dire consequences for food production and environmental management. This is also the case in Denmark where regulation largely relies on general measures for reducing N inputs. These measures have significantly reduced nitrogen emissions, but further reduction is needed to achieve sustainable low levels of N transport to freshwater and marine ecosystems in compliance with standards set by the EU Water Framework Directive. As an alternative to general regulation, we tested a watershed-based, collaborative planning approach, engaging stakeholders in solution identification. Six watersheds with substantial agricultural production were used as test areas. A collaborative planning process of two stakeholder workshops embedded within a scenario formulation process was executed. Stakeholder inputs about possible, desirable and sustainable futures were used to formulate scenarios, for which N reduction effects were calculated. Upon conclusion of this process, results were assessed using a structured evaluation method. Results indicate that the process we tested was successful in terms of (1) engaging relevant stakeholders, (2) providing relevant data, (3) achieving processual flexibility, (4) including local knowledge and (5) facilitating a creative and explorative process. On this basis, suggestions for improving collaborative planning processes are provided.

This study seeks a scientific methodology for ecological leisure industry planners to contribute to a more ecologically friendly leisure industry. This study creates an environment suitability model (LIDES) for leisure industry development. This model sees the natural ecological environment as just as important as the artificial environment. This study identifies the following factors: suitable land, unsuitable land, park plaza, scenic spot, river system, global network reachability, local network reachability, business impact, industrial impact. The Spatial Syntax method is used to account for effects of the urban road network. This method is incorporated into a geographic information system-analytic hierarchy process (GIS-AHP) approach, thus developing this method further. The method is demonstrated in the leisure industry in Shapingba District of Chongqing, China. The final suitability index map for ecological leisure industry is divided into four types: highly suitable, moderately suitable, marginally suitable, and low suitability areas. As a result, 8.08% (42.55 km2) of the study area has low suitability, 82.61% (435.15 km2) has marginal suitability, 8.62% (45.42 km2) has moderate suitability and 0.69% (3.65 km2) has the best suitability for creating an ecological leisure industry area. Discussion and relevant suggestions are given for further research.

With the socio-economic development associated with urbanization, the urban-rural relationship has changed across the world. In China, due to the urban-rural dual structure, these changes turn out to be more complicated. Spatial restructuring are suggested as the main strategies and spatial supporting platforms for urban-rural development. However, the theory still lacks solid methodology and support from systematic empirical studies. This study seeks an adequate scientific methodology and discusses the difference of urban-rural transformation in plains and mountainous areas. A case in Shanghang County, China, demonstrates: 1) The compound ecological niche model can be a suitable approach in urban-rural restructuring, especially in mountainous areas. 2) The urban-rural development area with highly inappropriate, slightly appropriate, moderately appropriate, and highly appropriate areas are 1273.2 km2 (44.69%); 906.1 km2 (31.80%); 509.4 km2 (17.88%); and 160.1 km2 (5.62%), respectively. 3) The “deserting villages” in mountainous areas play positive synergistic roles in urbanization, in contrast to the “hollowing villages” common in plain areas. 4) The central town-village will become the most important settlement in mountainous areas. Therefore, we suggest more attention should be paid to environmental capacity in the construction of central town-villages. This study significantly extends the understanding of “hollowing village” theory and regional planning.

Rapid urbanization has caused significant land cover change (LCC) as well as changes in the land surface temperature (LST). However, the crucial land dynamic process, which could significantly contribute to the increase in LST and aggravation of the urban heat island (UHI) effect, remains poorly understood. Additionally, a strategy to optimize the most significant decreased land cover type in order to maximize the cooling effect is still lacking. Therefore, in this study, we selected the rapidly urbanizing and ‘hottest’ city in China, Fuzhou, as a case study. Two algorithms were selected to compare and obtain reliable LST data. A land use transfer matrix was used to detect critical contributions leading to the LST variations. The concept of cooling efficiency (CE) and the threshold value of efficiency (TVoE) are also proposed, defined, and calculated. The results show that LST values increased with increasing proportion of built-up land and sharply decreasing proportion of green space. Areas where LST differences exceed 4 °C cover 93% of the areas where green spaces decreased. Additionally, the LST variation is not only associated with the dominant land cover types but is also affected by the land cover transfer pattern and dynamics. Finally, we have calculated the TVoE of green space in Fuzhou city to be 4.55 ± 0.5 ha. This finding implies that when Fuzhou municipality implements urban/landscape planning, a green space area of 4.55 ± 0.5 ha is the most efficient to reduce the heat effect. This study extends the current understanding of LCC dynamics and LST variation. The concepts of the CE and TVoE are meaningful for landscape planning practice and can be used in other cases.

Regulation of nitrate emission from agriculture to aquatic environments in Denmark currently depend on general rules for nutrient application and associated farm-level reporting schemes. Similar or comparable centralized regulation instruments dedicated to controlling and limiting rather than focusing and improving N application practices exist in large parts of the OECD. Recent policy debates have exposed an array of problems relating to this type of regulation. Problems include issues of appropriate scale, transparency and failures to adapt intervention and regulation to relevant geo-ecological variations in contexts where general rules are being imposed on varied agro-ecosystems. Therefore it has been proposed to rescale regulation to better fit relevant socio-political and agro-environmental processes including the scale of farmers’ decision making, the scale of relevant hydrological systems and the scale of key agro-ecological conditions such as soil characteristics and drainage. However, the challenge of shifting the regulation to a more local scale raises a number of questions. These include (1) How information produced locally can be integrated with national scale data? (2) In what way integrated datasets can used to model environmental effects of current and possible land use patterns? (3) In what way data and estimates of consequences of land use changes are best made available in decision making processes? To address these questions this article reports on ongoing work in Denmark to develop a decision support tool for N-management at the scale of agricultural landscapes, which are areas where a similar pattern of land use is repeated across the land surface, reflecting a specific mode of adapting agriculture to natural conditions. The aim of the article is to evaluate the design of a decision support tool aiming at enabling strategic N-management at landscape scales by linking decision support at the scale of individual farms with decision support targeted at groups of farms where a coordinated effort to solve common problems may be more efficient. Design targets for the tool were established empirically based on evidence from exploratory workshops with farmers and other stakeholders in 6 case areas across Denmark. On this basis a prototype GIS-tool for capturing, storing, editing, displaying and modelling landscape scale farming practices and associated emission consequences was developed. The tool was designed to integrate locally held knowledge with national scale datasets in live scenario situations through the implementation of a flexible, uniform and editable data model for land use data – the dNmark landscape model. Based on input data that is corrected and co-authored by workshop participants, the tool estimates the effect of potential land use scenarios on nutrient emissions. The tool was tested in 5 scenario workshops in case areas in Denmark in 2016, on the basis of which its design is evaluated and discussed in this article.

Scenario-building is a widely used tool to initiate discussions on future land uses. In scenarios possible futures can be explored and peoples' ideas as well as societal trends can be visualized by the use of maps, pictures and figures. With focus on agricultural nitrogen management, and point of departure in the farmers' decisions-regarding fertilizer inputs, crop rotations, land use, and drainage, landscape scenarios are formulated based on local ideas for future nitrogen management and general prospects for local development. The key research question addressed in this paper is how landscape scenarios can guide farmers to improve nitrogen management in smaller catchments dominated by farming. Participatory modelling was used to develop landscape scenarios, depicting the change of nitrogen emission as a result of changes in landscape management and agricultural practices. In the development of the scenarios we used an ArcMap based tool combining statistical data, experimental knowledge, nitrate leaching modelling and input from local stakeholders on biophysical as well as land use and farm management issues. The scenarios presented are the result of a collaborative planning experiment within the frames of the dNmark research alliance on nitrogen. Three different types of scenarios are presented and discussed and their effects in terms of N reduction are estimated. The three scenarios were called: River valley set-aside, constructed wetlands, and land zonation. All the modelled scenarios are estimated to have a positive effect i.e. a reduction of the level of N leached to the root zone. Based on the experience gathered in the project, the feasibility of using scenarios for future environmental planning in the agricultural landscapes is discussed. Further, this is related to the current discussion in Denmark on geographically targeted nitrogen regulation. It is concluded that the co-creative approach to formulation of scenarios can be an effective way of increasing the knowledge and ownership of possible future solutions, however the cost associated with this planning approach is likely to substantially higher that more traditional planning approaches. Consequently, the estimated transactions costs should be weighed against the expected benefits in terms of more successful implementation.

Urban renewal in China is having a comprehensive social impact that will almost certainly change residents' social capital and residential satisfaction. However, there are few studies on the relationship between the dynamics of social capital amid urban renewal (DSCUR) and the dynamics of residential satisfaction (DRS). This paper, therefore, evaluates the relationship between DSCUR and DRS in urban renewal areas in the center of Chongqing, China. The DSCUR and DRS are measured by residents' subjective perceived change. Six urban renewal projects in different stages were selected and a questionnaire survey that attracted 1086 respondents was conducted between December 1st, 2018, and April 1st, 2019. Results from partial least squares-structural equation modeling of the collected data show that all but one of the study's hypotheses are supported; the exception is a new variable developed by the paper's author referred to as ‘dynamics of eviction and gentrification’. The study found that DSCUR is positively correlated with DRS and that the dynamics of social connectedness, the dynamics of social trust, and the dynamics of reciprocity contribute most to DSCUR.

Denmark was considered not to have an established population of free-ranging wild boar. Today, sporadic observations of wild boar challenge that view. Due to its reservoir role for economic devastating swine diseases, wild boar represents a potential threat for Denmark's position as a large pig- and pork-exporting country. This study assessed the prospects of wild boar invasion in Denmark. Multi-source citizen science data of wild boar observations were integrated into a multi-modelling approach linking habitat suitability models with agent-based, spatially-explicit simulations. We tested whether the currently observed presence of wild boar is due to natural immigration across the Danish-German border, or whether it is more likely that wild boar escaped fenced premises. Five observational data sources served as evaluation data: (1) questionnaires sent to all 1625 registered owners of Danish farm land, located in the 60 parishes closest to the border, (2) an online questionnaire, (3) a mobile web-based GPS application, (4) reports in the media or by governmental agencies, and (5) geo-referenced locations of fenced wild boar populations. Data covering 2008-2013 included 195 observations of wild boar, including 16 observations of breeding sows. The data from the Danish Nature Agency and the mailed questionnaires were consistent regarding the location of wild boar observations, while data from the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, the media and the electronic questionnaires documented individual scattered observations in the rest of Jutland. Most observations were made in the region bordering Germany. It is uncertain whether the relatively few observations represent an established population. Model outcomes suggested that the origin of wild boar in about half of the area with sporadic observations of wild boar could be attributed to spatial expansions from a local Danish population near the border and consisting of wild boar originally of German origin. However, the other half, located distant to the border, were likely a result of animals escaping fenced premises inside the country. The approach serves as a template to assess the status of an invading species and improve the knowledge base for risk assessment and management decision.

Urban green space (UGS) is often unevenly distributed in cities, which raises the issue of green justice. Previous studies have focused on evaluating the disparities in UGS provision across urban-rural gradients and inequities among heterogeneous social groups. However, few studies have considered the built environments in communities despite the potential for unprecedented rates of urbanization to exacerbate the living environment disparity within cities. Here, we assessed the disparities in UGS provision in communities with diverse built environments using a systematic framework incorporating availability, proximity, and desirability metrics. Specifically, we classified communities into six levels based on their spatial features such as patterns of development, scale, population density, and ‘green’ assets (e.g., private garden and tree-canopy coverage). Lorenz curves and the Gini index were employed to evaluate inequity, and the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine the significant differences among different levels of community. Yangzhou city, China, was selected as a study case, and the results indicate that: (1) UGS is unevenly distributed, and communities located in the urban periphery have lower UGS provision; (2) Serious inequities in UGS provision are demonstrated, with a small proportion of the population having the greatest level of provision; (3) Significant disparities in UGS provision among different levels of community are revealed; generally, residents living in communities with a well-maintained ‘green’ assets enjoy access to more major public UGS. Our study provides a novel perspective on quantifying UGS provision inequities. It can help guide decision-makers and planners to accurately target vulnerable groups (communities) and formulate effective policies and strategies to address green injustice.

Considerable specific cross-sectional and review studies have linked exposure to green spaces to improving public health, but there is no bibliometric review attempting to systemically and retrospectively analyze these existing articles. Here we aim to uncover global research status, trends, and future prospects in green spaces and health (G-H) research then propose a framework for the underlying mechanisms and pathways that link green space to public health. We obtained 18 961 G-H research publications from the core Web of Science collection from 1901 to 2019, analyzing the characteristics of publication outputs, key scientific disciplines, and differences in performance between countries and institutions. Besides, content analysis was conducted to analyze the keywords, including keyword co-occurrence analysis and keyword clustering analysis. We found: (1) a steady quantitative increase in publications, active journals, and involved countries and institutions since the 1990s; (2) a significant increase and changes in G-H related interdisciplinary categories, with environment-related disciplines becoming the mainstream; (3) research focus and trends that were identified based on the analysis of high-frequency co-occurring keywords; (4) three main knowledge domains, namely, green spaces and physical health, mental health, and ecosystem health, that were identified and visualized based on keyword clustering analysis; (5) a framework of underlying mechanisms and pathways linking green space to public health that is proposed based on visualization of the three main knowledge domains. We suggest that the main challenge of G-H research is to further clarify in-depth the underlying mechanisms and pathways from multiple perspectives, including multiple nations, disciplines, and study designs. The lack of co-occurring keywords and clustering information related to social well-being suggests that research related to ‘social health’ is lacking. Based on a clear understanding of the quantity, quality, and characteristics of green space for public health, a health-based environmental plan should be proposed in the future.

Cooling energy consumption in urban areas is affected significantly by the dynamics of urban heat flux. However, we still lack a clear understanding of the quantitative contribution rate and underlying mechanism of typical urban landscapes to urban heat dynamics, especially in seasonal and diurnal patterns. Here we used a thermal infrared camera and portable meteorological instruments to examine the sensible heat flux (SHF) changes of five typical urban landscapes in Beijing based on surface temperature and concurrent microclimate conditions. Diurnal and seasonal variations of SHF were quantified by comparing changes in forenoon and afternoon in different seasons. Results showed that (1) walls and roads act as heat-source, while forests and water act as heat-sink in all seasons; however, grassland served as heat-sink in summer and spring-autumn, but it becomes a heat-source in winter. (2) The seasonal variation of sensible heat flux of the wall is the greatest, followed by water, while that of trees is the smallest. Besides, the highest sensible heat flux and the maximum variation among typical urban landscapes occur between noon and 2:00 pm. (3) The numerical contribution rate of typical landscapes to sensible heat flux varies with daytime (forenoon and afternoon) and seasonal changes, and these ratios can be used as parameters to adjust the numerical models to obtain more reliable results in surface-energy-flux-related studies. The results of this study can provide a reference for explaining controversial findings based on remote-sensing data, and provide insights into revealing the sensible heat flux mechanism of typical urban landscapes and cooling energy conservation in cities.

The cooling effect of blue-green space has been recognized as a promising approach to mitigate the urban heat island (UHI), while the quantitative role (threshold-size for cooling) is still uncertain. This paper aims to present the latest progress and controversies on the studies of the cooling effects of waterbodies, greenspaces, and parks. In order to do this research, international search engines were employed to systematically search peer-reviewed articles, including the cooling effect of blue-green space and threshold-size-based UHI mitigation studies. After that, the inductive analysis is used to analyze the relevant literature. We found that previous studies concentrated on the correlations between different landscape types, temperature variations and the quantification of cooling intensity, etc. However, threshold-size-based research has received less attention, which limits the ability to make specific recommendations for actionable planning and management – usingthe smallest blue-green space for the best cooling effect. The review also revealed the controversies over the effects of blue-green space size, shape, landscape composition and configuration on cooling effect. Besides, we pointed out that the uncertainties (i.e., the optimal proportion of blue-green space in a park) and the reasons of controversial results of the cooling effect need to be further investigated. We also suggested that more attention should be paid to quantify the contributions of local background climate and landscape characteristics to the cooling effect (threshold-size) of blue-green space. This review would give us a deeper understanding of the field and provide insights into actionable climate adaption planning.

Climate change has increased the frequency of extreme climatic events and the intensity of heatwaves in high-latitude cities that have rarely been affected in the past, yet there is less attention to these regions. Therefore, we selected Copenhagen as the case, we used spatial/statistical methods to assess the cooling-effect of blue-green spaces in different seasons. We found (1) land surface temperature (LST) is negatively correlated with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) in all seasons; (2) Tree-covered greenspace with a compact shape would be a priority for climate adaption in high-latitude cities. While when the area of blue-green space is large to a certain extent (>1 ha), the complex shape also has a strong cooling-effect. Further, the area and cooling extent and intensity conform a logarithm function with significant correlations except for winter. (3) Compared with other seasons, blue-green space provides a higher cooling-effect in summer, and the mean cooling extent and intensity are 150 m and 2.47℃; (4) Background temperature can significantly affect the threshold value of efficiency (TVoE). The results of this study expand the understanding of the cooling-effect of blue-green spaces and provide implications for sustainable urban planning.

The comprehensive management of ecosystem service benefits and losses provided by landscapes under land-use reorganization is essential for optimizing and regulating landscape patterns and ecological conservation under rapid urbanization. Of the many studies focusing on the quantification and visualization of ecosystem services, few have explored the visualization characteristics of the different scales related to ecosystem services and losses. In this study, we selected one of the most important urban agglomerations in China—the Yangtze River Delta (YRD)—as a case for the analysis of ecosystem service benefits (which include environmental purification, climate and air regulation, and tourism and leisure) and losses (pollen allergies, air pollution, and the heat island effect) and the spatial patterns of both at multiple scales (grid divisions, administrative districts, and functional areas). We found that the value of ecosystem service losses in the YRD, with a net value of approximately −$42.02 × 106, was slightly higher than the value of ecosystem service benefits. The patterns of ecosystem service benefits were consistent with urbanization processes and patterns, with the natural landscape always serving as the main provider of ecosystem service benefits while the spatial pattern of the urbanized landscape determined the ecosystem service losses. Based on K-means clustering using randomly selected objects as an initial cluster center, we divided the YRD into different functional areas (optimized-, key-, and restricted-development zones) within the grid to create divisions with consistent biophysical properties, thereby avoiding the impact of urban administrative boundaries on the results. To facilitate closing the gap between positive and negative ecosystem outcomes in a politically feasible manner, we also identified functional areas in terms of ecosystem service bundles at the administrative district scale. This study obtains quantitative knowledge of functional areas based on ecosystem services benefits and losses, and helps guide sustainable urban agglomeration planning and development.

Farm diversification presents important development opportunities and challenges in peri-urban landscapes. New economic activities in left over farm buildings have traditionally been seen as a way to broaden the income base in particular in more remote areas. The positive economic effects needs to be balanced with the negative effects of the hidden urbanization that may convert rural areas to de facto urban areas and an inefficient use of demarcated industrial zones. Nowhere is the range of interests and competition for land greater than in peri-urban areas, which therefore represent special planning challenges. We investigated the patterns and processes of On-farm Business Structure Diversification (OFBSD) in Greater Copenhagen, with a particular focus on the use of three resources: land, buildings and rural assets for OFBSD activities as well as the motives behind farm purchase. The results are based on a case study with 146 farm owners. They show that 60% of all land owners were involved in OFBSD activities. No significant relationship with particular farm or farmer characteristics was detected. An estimation of resource use indicates that buildings are essential for 95% of the OFBSD activities, while 47% and 31% of the activities rely on the use of outdoor space or nearby rural assets. The results indicate that most activities are “footloose” and might as well be located in an urban setting. Furthermore, the results indicate that many farm owners purchased their farm based on a range of motives, combining both private and business considerations. This result has important planning implications, as physical planning regulation traditionally has focused on separate domains of interest, which corresponds poorly with current dynamics of OFBSD activities in peri-urban areas.

Utilization of urban green vegetation (UGV) has been recognized as a promising option to mitigate urban heat island (UHI) effect. While we still lack understanding of the contributions of local background climate to the cooling effect of UGV. Here we proposed and employed a cooling effect framework and selected eight typical cities located in Temperate Monsoon Climate (TMC) and Mediterranean Climate (MC) demonstrate that local climate condition largely affects the cooling effect of UGV. Specifically, we found increasing (artificial) rainfall and irrigation contribute to improving the cooling intensity of grassland in both climates, particularly in the hot-dry environment. The cities with high relative humidity would restrict the cooling effect of UGV. Increasing wind speed would significantly enhance the tree-covered while weakening the grass-covered UGVs’ cooling effect in MC cities. We also identified that, in order to achieve the most effective cooling with the smallest sized tree-covered UGV, the area of trees in both climate zones’ cities should generally be planned around 0.5 ha. The method and results enhance understanding of the cooling effect of UGVs on larger (climate) scales and provide important insights for UGV planning and management.

Background and aim:Environmental issues have been regulated through statutory planning since the 1970s in most OECD countries. After decades with focus on centralized, top-down oriented approaches in environmental planning and regulation, collaborative and participatory bottom-up oriented planning approaches are gaining momentum. The aim of this paper is to test a collaborative planning approach in the regulation of nitrogen in the farming sector. The overarching question is whether this regulation can be organised locally rather than by general, national rules. The benefits by adopting a local approach is that local knowledge on, e.g. farming practices, soil, water and climate, can feed into the regulation process, making general rules less important, maybe even obsolete.Methods:The planning approach adapted for the study was inspired by concepts of collaborative planning in urban areas and various other concepts of participatory environmental planning. The approach was tested simultaneously in six case areas of rural Denmark, each comprising small watersheds (20-76km2). The strategic aim was to reduce the loss of nitrogen from farms to the aquatic environment. The planning process consisted of two stakeholder workshops bracketing a scenario formulation process. As decision support a fine-scaled nitrogen leaching model applied in an interactive GIS platform was developed. Stakeholders comprised farmers, civil servants from municipalities, NGOs, farm extension services, private enterprises and interested citizens. At the first workshop stakeholders gave inputs to scenarios in which land use and land cover changes were simulated, and the resulting loss of nitrogen was estimated. At the second workshop the scenarios were presented and discussed. Success criteria for this planning procedure comprised: stakeholders became engaged in a dialogue, provided inputs to the scenarios, and accepted the premises; they followed presentations in the second workshop and commented on the outcomes.Results:The six case processes gave different outcomes in terms of success of formulating solutions. They differed in the degree of collective understanding of the aim, in the level of conflicts internally among stakeholders, and in the degree of cooperation and the sense of accomplishment of win-win situations. Each case area had a unique situation, but in general the more successful case areas had a strong existing network, accomplished a common understanding of the target, could keep conflicts at a low level, and managed to work collaborative towards win-win situations.Conclusions:The success of the collaborative planning process in our case areas depends on, e.g, existing networks and sense of place-attachment. In the best cases there is a basis for initiating concrete projects, in the worse cases the process suffer from conflicts at several levels. Conclusively, given the right conditions of communication and collaboration, hard environmental problems can be solved by bottom up approaches.Acknowledgements:This work is partly funded by the Strategic Research Alliance DNMARK: Danish Nitrogen Mitigation Assessment: Research and Know-how for a sustainable, low-Nitrogen food production (2013–2017) funded by The Danish Council for Strategic Research.

Production of food and fibres has traditionally been the main function of agriculture. In the last decades an increased focus on the importance of other functions has been discussed within the framework of agricultural and general land use multifunctionality. To a large extent farmers’ decisions and actions determine which functions their farming practices support. The extent of the production function is straightforward to identify and quantify but problems persist in rating functions such as ecosystem maintenance, housing, and amenity values. This paper presents a method to quantify and compare multifunctionality at farm level. Four main farm functions–production, residence, provision of wildlife habitats, and recreation–are selected to describe multifunctionality. In the quantification process indicators are identified to produce four aggregated function scores based on farm characteristics and activities. The farm data that support the indicators is derived from an interview survey conducted in 2008. The aggregated function scores vary with farm size as well as farm type; smaller, hobby-based farms in general score highest in the residence function whereas bigger, full-time farms score highest in the production, wildlife habitat, and recreation functions. This suggests that trade-offs between production development on the one side and environmental and recreational concerns on the other side may not be as high as expected. Farm of sizes 50–100 ha showed the highest multifunctionality–in this paper described as balance among functions–whilst smaller and bigger farms were biased towards mainly residence and production concerns, respectively. Challenges in quantifying functions still persist, but the suggested approach offer a method by which functionality can be compared among farms and among functions. Knowledge on the functional focus at farm level may assist both farmers and spatial planners in decision making regarding future management of agricultural landscapes.

Denne bog handler om FN’s 17 mål for en bæredygtig global udvikling. Bogen ser verdensmålene fra et dansk perspektiv. De handler om en bæredygtig udvikling på kloden i de næste årtier. Det betyder en øget indsats for klimaet, udryddelse af fattigdom, mere lighed mellem mennesker, uddannelse til alle, ligestilling for kvinder og piger, sundhed for alle – og meget mere. Denne bogs forfattere stiller spørgsmålene: Hvad betyder målene for Danmark? Hvilke indsatser skal vi gennemføre i Danmark? Hvilke forpligtelser og muligheder har Danmark i forhold til andre lande i verden, herunder: Hvad kan Danmark lære af andre lande i Verden?Kapitel 11, Byer for fremtiden tager udgangspunkt i det verdensmål, der vedrører forvaltning for bæredygtige byer og lokalsamfund. Fokus sættes på en beskrivelse og diskussion af danske forhold, hvor vi lægger særlig vægt på at høste de bedste erfaringer fra byplanlægning, borgerinddragelse, teknologi og governance under inddragelse af de sociale strukturer, der betinger byers og lokalsamfunds udvikling i Danmark. Vi vil i særlig grad forsøge at identificere best practices, som andre lande og regioner kan lære af. Gennem særligt det tyvende århundrede haft danske byer stået over for mange problemer, som borgere, virksomheder og myndigheder løbende har været forsøgt at løse. Vi har ikke nødvendigvis altid udviklet de bedste løsninger i Danmark, men i en række tilfælde er der fundet løsninger som andre helt givet kan blive inspireret af. De fremskridt danske byer og lokalsamfund har opnået gennem det tyvende århundrede kan bidrage til en vis optimisme i en verden hvor en stadig stigende del af verdens befolkning bor i byer.

The lack of generic methods to assess the environmental consequences of agricultural practices and the lack of consensus on monitoring and evaluation of environmental, agricultural and socio-economic effects of agri-environment schemes (AES) in EU Member States call for better evaluation methods. The ‘Agri-environmental Footprint’ project proposed to deal with these problems by establishing a new evaluation method, the Agri-Environmental Footprint Index (AFI). The AFI is an index customised to local stakeholder preferences, using expert knowledge for assessment of impacts and sensitivity, and indicators of the environmental state at farm level. In a Danish test case, agricultural practices at twenty-five farms in two groundwater protection zones were assessed. Data was collected from databases, registers, maps and interviews with farmers. The index was calculated for 1996/7 and 2006/7 to track temporal development and effects of entering an agri-environmental scheme. The Danish case demonstrated that the index can be used to track changes in environmental impacts and that entering agri-environmental scheme had a positive impact on the index value. However, the index should be used with caution. It is important to consider the robustness of each indicator: to assess whether changes will occur over time; whether changes are linked to management practices or external factors; and whether data are available up to date. Indicators dependent upon uptake data from agri-environmental schemes should be used with great caution. Retrospective use of stakeholder preferences is subject to uncertainty because preferences may have changed over time.

The subject of this paper is the views of farmers concerning their local landscape. In two contrasting Danish case study areas previously analysed in the 1990s, a small number of farmers have been interviewed regarding their views of the landscape and recent changes in their respective area including landscape changes. One of the areas (Hvorslev) is characterized by good conditions for agriculture, intensive husbandry production and a relatively stable landscape history. The other (Nees) has more marginal conditions and major changes in land use characterize the recent landscape history. We analyze the way in which the landscape is perceived by farmers and compare their views of the changing landscapes with the actual recorded changes on the one hand, and with other significant changes on the other. Farmers in both areas emphasized the same type of structural changes in agriculture and in the villages as significant, whereas only farmers in Nees indicated that the landscape had changed. When aske...

Among ecosystem services, the various categories of intangible services linked to human perception, such as aesthetics, recreational values and cultural heritage, must be rated alongside tangible services linked to physical processes, such as wildlife habitats, clean water and air, and filter- and buffer effects. This is a pre-requisite for a sustainable development with a balance between ecological, social and economic values. We analyse ecosystem services in areas of the urban fringe of Copenhagen, where the services provided are mainly related to human perception. We employ relatively simple methods in selected landscapes to qualify or quantify the aesthetics and recreational value, and the scale of the welfare economic value of these ecosystem services. In the first case area, the Danish state acquired 50 villas covering more than 50 ha in order to recreate open vistas and gain access for the public to the seaside. In the second case area, peri-urban open landscapes were protected by conservation orders, to maintain and enhance the benefits of green space for the growing urban population. We assess the value – in a broad sense – of these ecosystem services using three practical methods: a landscape evaluation in terms of services and qualities, an assessment of actual recreational use, and finally an assessment of the costs – in terms of residential development values lost – of securing the provision of aesthetic qualities and recreational opportunities. Searching the original planning documents we uncovered the original motivation for the land evaluation and decision. The arguments behind the designation and protection of the areas were primarily aesthetic and potentials for recreational use. The two areas receive annually 2–2.5 million and 400.000 visits respectively, proving their strong recreational value. The value of the demolished houses in the first case area exceeds 115 million €, and the value of the lost development opportunities in the second case area exceeds 280 million €. By combination the three methods, we substantiated that the intangible services may dominate the tangible in cases like these, stressing the need for planners to assess the role and value hereof.

Agri-Environment Schemes (AES) to maintain or promote environmentally-friendly farming practices were implemented on about 25% of all agricultural land in the EU by 2002. This article analyses and discusses the actual and potential use of impact models in supporting the design, implementation and evaluation of AES. Impact models identify and establish the causal relationships between policy objectives and policy outcomes. We review and discuss the role of impact models at different stages in the AES policy process, and present results from a survey of impact models underlying 60 agri-environmental schemes in seven EU member states. We distinguished among three categories of impact models (quantitative, qualitative or common sense), depending on the degree of evidence in the formal scheme description, additional documents, or key person interviews. The categories of impact models used mainly depended on whether scheme objectives were related to natural resources, biodiversity or landscape. A higher proportion of schemes dealing with natural resources (primarily water) were based on quantitative impact models, compared to those concerned with biodiversity or landscape. Schemes explicitly targeted either on particular parts of individual farms or specific areas tended to be based more on quantitative impact models compared to whole-farm schemes and broad, horizontal schemes. We conclude that increased and better use of impact models has significant potential to improve efficiency and effectiveness of AES.

Management of ecological entities in agricultural landscapes is often challenged by a complex ownership structure governed by a cadastral system dictated by agricultural interests and historical land use practices. The cadastral division is suspected to obstruct the deliverance of ecosystem services (ES) from the landscape. The objective of this analysis is to quantify the cadastral fragmentation of selected landscape-scale ES. Contiguous ecological units and landscape entities as designated in Danish municipal planning were analyzed. The designations comprised the existing ES represented by EU Natura 2000 areas, drinking water protection areas and valuable landscapes, and potential ES in areas designated for potential wetlands, afforestation and recreational trails. In each designated area the cadastral structure in terms of number of units, size, and number of affected properties was analyzed. In all cases a large number of rather small (mean area

Increasing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, and widespread deposition of N to terrestrial ecosystems has increased the focus on soil C and N pools. The aim of this study was to estimate the size and distribution of organic C and N pools in well-drained Danish forest soils. We examined 140 forest soil profiles from pedological surveys of Danish forest soils. We calculated total C and N pools in organic layers and mineral soils to a depth of 1 m. The profiles represent variations in texture (sandy to loamy), and soil order (USDA soil taxonomy Spodosols, Alfisols, Entisols, and Inceptisols). The average total organic C and N contents were 12.5 and 0.61 kg m -2 respectively. There were large differences in total C and N among soil orders. Spodosols had the greatest C content (14.6 kg m -2 ), and Alfisols the least (8.8 kg m -2 ), while the N content was highest in Alfisols (0.75 kg m -2 ) and least in Spodosols (0.51 kg m -2 ). The main contributor to the high C content in Spodosols is the spodic horizons containing illuvial humus, and thick organic horizons. Carbon and N concentrations decreased with soil depth. Soil day content was negatively correlated to C content and positively correlated to N content. Soil order and horizon designations may be useful in predicting the total C and N content of Danish forest soils, and may also predict potential for C sequestration following afforestation of arable land.

With more than 60% of the land farmed, with vulnerable freshwater and marine environments, and with one of the most intensive, export-oriented livestock sectors in the world, the nitrogen (N) pollution pressure from Danish agriculture is severe. Consequently, a series of policy action plans have been implemented since the mid 1980s with significant effects on the surplus, efficiency and environmental loadings of N. This paper reviews the policies and actions taken and their ability to mitigate effects of reactive N (Nr) while maintaining agricultural production. In summary, the average N-surplus has been reduced from approximately 170 kg N ha?1 yr?1 to below 100 kg N ha?1 yr?1 during the past 30 yrs, while the overall N-efficiency for the agricultural sector (crop?+?livestock farming) has increased from around 20?30% to 40?45%, the N-leaching from the field root zone has been halved, and N losses to the aquatic and atmospheric environment have been significantly reduced. This has been achieved through a combination of approaches and measures (ranging from command and control legislation, over market-based regulation and governmental expenditure to information and voluntary action), with specific measures addressing the whole N cascade, in order to improve the quality of ground- and surface waters, and to reduce the deposition to terrestrial natural ecosystems. However, there is still a major challenge in complying with the EU Water Framework and Habitats Directives, calling for new approaches, measures and technologies to mitigate agricultural N losses and control N flows.

Fertilization experiments in Norway spruce stands on nutrient-poor sites have been practised in Denmark since the eighteenth century. Until 1950, the main aim was to find a nitrogen (N) source that improved the survival of plants in the early growth phase. The N supply could be improved by intercropping with N 2 -fixing plants, and fertilization with phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) improved the growth of the N 2 fixers, thereby improving tree growth and survival. Positive responses of P and K in spruce cultures were seen in the 1960s, and in most cases the N response was dependent on the supply of P and K. Fertilization experiments in mature spruce stands began in the 1960s. Despite 20 yrs of experimentation, no trends can be deduced. The results discouraged fertilization aimed at increasing growth in mature stands, and fertilization stopped in 1989. After 1980, fertilizers were used in experiments aimed at clarifying the causes and effects of forest decline. Fertilization and liming counteracted soil ac...

Ecological restoration is becoming a main component in nature management; hence, its definitions and interpretations of the underlying principles are widely discussed. In Denmark, restoration has been implemented for decades, and the LIFE Nature program has contributed to several large-scale projects. Our aim was to indicate tendencies in Danish nature policy by analyzing a representative sample of nature management projects. Using qualitative document analyses of official reports, we investigated how well 13 LIFE Nature cofinanced projects undertaken in Denmark fit with the principles of ecological restoration, as formulated in the nine attributes of the Society for Ecological Restoration's Primer on Ecological Restoration, and based on the five myths of ecological restoration. Objectives of the analyzed projects were divided into three categories: conservation of a single or a group of species; restoration of set-aside areas, mainly on abandoned agricultural land; and habitat management of Natura 2000 areas. Despite this grouping, improvement in living conditions for certain species associated with specific nature types was in focus in all projects. No projects considered or fulfilled all nine attributes. It seems that attributes associated with fundamental requirements for the existence of target species or habitats were more often fulfilled than attributes associated with continuity of the ecosystem as a whole, which indicated a focus on ecosystem structures rather than on processes. We found that the two assumptions of a predictable single endpoint (the myth of the Carbon Copy) and that nature is controllable (the myth of Command and Control) were notably frequent in the Danish projects. Often, the target ecosystem was associated with a semicultural landscape, and management focused on keeping the vegetation low and preventing overgrowth of colonizing trees. The results indicated that nature policy in Denmark and the LIFE Nature program are based on a control paradigm, with the focus on structures rather than on processes. Further, the results revealed that the definition and interpretation of ecological restoration is ambiguous, and according to land use history, there is a need for concepts and approaches to be clearly defined.

Soil samples from 57 Norway spruce stands on sandy and nutrient poor soils in western Denmark were analysed for their content of exchangeable calcium, potassium and magnesium. The content of the three elements showed a strong spatial variation and the content of Mg and Ca correlated significantly with stand yield class. Estimations on nutrient export by harvest of stem and bark and a comparison with soil content, suggest that severe nutrient deficiencies may occur on many sites in the future. A soil weathering assay applied to selected sites, indicated that the long-term Ca supply is particularly critical, whereas the long-term supply of K and Mg from weathering of soil minerals, is more stable.

The vertical distribution of P, and exchangeable Ca, K, and Mg within the soil profile (up to 100 cm depth of the mineral soil) in 57 Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) stands on sandy, acid soils in western Denmark is presented. The importance of the fraction of mineral nutrients found in the organic horizon is evaluated in particular. The O horizons play an important role for Ca. In half of the soils, more than 50% of the exchangeable Ca was found in the O horizon. Furthermore, large average proportions of exchangeable Mg (ca. 40%) and K (ca. 30%) were found in the O horizon. Phosphorus was quite evenly distributed in the mineral soil, but generally most P was extracted from depths below 50 cm. This vertical distribution pattern reflects the function of the “base pump” of forest ecosystems. In the short term, no substantial increase in the pools of available Ca, Mg and K can be expected due to increased rooting depth, as very minute amounts of exchangeable Ca, K and Mg were found in the deeper laye...

Land areas in collective ownership or use are traditionally referred to as commons. Through history, the common use and ownership has been a widespread means of regulating the use of natural resources. Changing economic conditions and technology spawned a process however where land use rights and landowner rights aggregated into the modern form of private ownership of individual farms with full management and owner rights. This process had obvious rationales in terms of production of marketable agricultural products. However, in the twentieth century increasing awareness of the supply of externalities such as clean groundwater and recreational opportunities from landscapes turned the attention once again to commons as an instrument for managing natural resources. Using groundwater and coastal landscapes as case examples, we pinpoint problems where outputs from the landscape are multiple consisting of a mix of public and private goods. In some instances central intervention is needed to ensure provision of public goods. In situations where transaction costs are too high to justify the guaranteed supply of goods, local initiatives, cooperatives and networks may be suitable regulatory alternatives to the predominant private and individualised ownership. It is concluded that the management regimes chosen should reflect the dominant functionality of the area in question.