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Genomic uracil is normally processed essentially error-free by base excision repair (BER), with mismatch repair (MMR) as an apparent backup for U:G mismatches. Nuclear uracil-DNA glycosylase UNG2 is the major enzyme initiating BER of uracil of U:A pairs as well as U:G mismatches. Deficiency in UNG2 results in several-fold increases in genomic uracil in mammalian cells. Thus, the alternative uracil-removing glycosylases, SMUG1, TDG and MBD4 cannot efficiently complement UNG2-deficiency. A major function of SMUG1 is probably to remove 5-hydroxymethyluracil from DNA with general back-up for UNG2 as a minor function. TDG and MBD4 remove deamination products U or T mismatched to G in CpG/mCpG contexts, but may have equally or more important functions in development, epigenetics and gene regulation. Genomic uracil was previously thought to arise only from spontaneous cytosine deamination and incorporation of dUMP, generating U:G mismatches and U:A pairs, respectively. However, the identification of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and other APOBEC family members as DNA-cytosine deaminases has spurred renewed interest in the processing of genomic uracil. Importantly, AID triggers the adaptive immune response involving error-prone processing of U:G mismatches, but also contributes to B-cell lymphomagenesis. Furthermore, mutational signatures in a substantial fraction of other human cancers are consistent with APOBEC-induced mutagenesis, with U:G mismatches as prime suspects. Mutations can be caused by replicative polymerases copying uracil in U:G mismatches, or by translesion polymerases that insert incorrect bases opposite abasic sites after uracil-removal. In addition, kataegis, localized hypermutations in one strand in the vicinity of genomic rearrangements, requires APOBEC protein, UNG2 and translesion polymerase REV1. What mechanisms govern error-free versus error prone processing of uracil in DNA remains unclear. In conclusion, genomic uracil is an essential intermediate in adaptive immunity and innate antiviral responses, but may also be a fundamental cause of a wide range of malignancies.

Human nuclear uracil-DNA glycosylase UNG2 is essential for post-replicative repair of uracil in DNA, and UNG2 protein and mRNA levels rapidly decline in G2/M phase. Previous work has demonstrated regulation of UNG2 at the transcriptional level, as well as by protein phosphorylation and ubiquitylation. UNG2 mRNA, encoded by the UNG gene, contains a long 3'untranslated region (3'UTR) of previously unknown function. Here, we demonstrate that several conserved regions in the 3'UTR are potential seed sites for microRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-16, miR-34c, and miR-199a. Our results show that these miRNAs down-regulate UNG activity, UNG mRNA, and UNG protein levels. Down-regulation was dependent on the 3'UTR, indicating that the miRNAs directly target the conserved seed sites in the 3'UTR. These results add miRNAs as a new modality to UNG's increasing list of complex regulatory mechanisms.

Cytotoxicity of 5-fluorouracil (FU) and 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine (FdUrd) due to DNA fragmentation during DNA repair has been proposed as an alternative to effects from thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition or RNA incorporation. The goal of the present study was to investigate the relative contribution of the proposed mechanisms for cytotoxicity of 5-fluoropyrimidines. We demonstrate that in human cancer cells, base excision repair (BER) initiated by the uracil–DNA glycosylase UNG is the major route for FU–DNA repair in vitro and in vivo. SMUG1, TDG and MBD4 contributed modestly in vitro and not detectably in vivo. Contribution from mismatch repair was limited to FU:G contexts at best. Surprisingly, knockdown of individual uracil–DNA glycosylases or MSH2 did not affect sensitivity to FU or FdUrd. Inhibitors of common steps of BER or DNA damage signalling affected sensitivity to FdUrd and HmdUrd, but not to FU. In support of predominantly RNA-mediated cytotoxicity, FU-treated cells accumulated ~3000- to 15 000-fold more FU in RNA than in DNA. Moreover, FU-cytotoxicity was partially reversed by ribonucleosides, but not deoxyribonucleosides and FU displayed modest TS-inhibition compared to FdUrd. In conclusion, UNG-initiated BER is the major route for FU–DNA repair, but cytotoxicity of FU is predominantly RNA-mediated, while DNA-mediated effects are limited to FdUrd. The Author(s) 2011. Published by Oxford University Press. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc/3.0), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Genomic uracil is a DNA lesion but also an essential key intermediate in adaptive immunity. In B cells, activation-induced cytidine deaminase deaminates cytosine to uracil (U:G mispairs) in Ig genes to initiate antibody maturation. Uracil-DNA glycosylases (UDGs) such as uracil N-glycosylase (UNG), single strand-selective monofunctional uracil-DNA glycosylase 1 (SMUG1), and thymine-DNA glycosylase remove uracil from DNA. Gene-targeted mouse models are extensively used to investigate the role of these enzymes in DNA repair and Ig diversification. However, possible species differences in uracil processing in humans and mice are yet not established. To address this, we analyzed UDG activities and quantities in human and mouse cell lines and in splenic B cells from Ung+/+ and Ung−/− backcrossed mice. Interestingly, human cells displayed ∼15-fold higher total uracil excision capacity due to higher levels of UNG. In contrast, SMUG1 activity was ∼8-fold higher in mouse cells, constituting ∼50% of the total U:G excision activity compared with less than 1% in human cells. In activated B cells, both UNG and SMUG1 activities were at levels comparable with those measured for mouse cell lines. Moreover, SMUG1 activity per cell was not down-regulated after activation. We therefore suggest that SMUG1 may work as a weak backup activity for UNG2 during class switch recombination in Ung−/− mice. Our results reveal significant species differences in genomic uracil processing. These findings should be taken into account when mouse models are used in studies of uracil DNA repair and adaptive immunity.

Jabs (stabs) usually last ≤3 s and are located in the skull area, mostly anteriorly. In many cases, there are only a few jabs during lifetime. With this definition, jabs are frequent, thus at 35.2% in the Vågå study of headache epidemiology. Long-lasting jabs (?), i.e. paroxysms lasting 10-120 s, were present in six out of 1779 parishioners. These pain paroxysms seemed mainly to be side-locked, but could not be provoked. Possibly, these long-lasting jabs after all mainly are regular jabs. To include the ≤2-minute-long paroxysms among the jabs will necessitate a rather drastic change of criteria. This group of jabs may, nevertheless, be heterogeneous. In two parishioners, the paroxysms were associated with a migraine-like pain. The paroxysms occasionally became most intense (2-10 times the basal pain), and then, and only then, were they combined with stark, visual phenomena: wave-like movements ('undulation'), anopsia, but also: immense dizziness, nausea/vomiting. The nature of the side-locked basal pain, although migraine-like, remains unsolved.

In a large-scale study of headache epidemiology in Vågå, Norway, 1838 adult parishioners(18–65 years of age) were examined, and this represents 88.6% of the target group. Jabs and jolts syndrome/idiopathic stabbing headache (ISH) was verified in 35.2% of the questioned parishioners. This prevalence is much higher than previously observed ones. There were clearly more females than males, the female/male ratio being 1.49, as compared to a ratio of 1.06 in the study cohort ( P-value: < 0.0001, χ2 test). The ratio, 1.49, also differs clearly from a previously observed one: 6.6 ( P-value = 0.0003, Fisher's exact test). Control studies included blinded re-check of 100 work-ups, with complete concurrence (kappa-value of 1.00 and blinded re-check of 41 individuals (kapp value of 0.841). Jabs and jolts/ISH are frequent and almost the sole shortlasting (generally < 3 s duration) cephalic paroxysms.

tThe most common mutations in cancer are C to T transitions, but their origin has remained elusive.Recently, mutational signatures of APOBEC-family cytosine deaminases were identified in many com-mon cancers, suggesting off-target deamination of cytosine to uracil as a common mutagenic mechanism.Here we present evidence from mass spectrometric quantitation of deoxyuridine in DNA that shows sig-nificantly higher genomic uracil content in B-cell lymphoma cell lines compared to non-lymphoma cancercell lines and normal circulating lymphocytes. The genomic uracil levels were highly correlated with AIDmRNA and protein expression, but not with expression of other APOBECs. Accordingly, AID knockdownsignificantly reduced genomic uracil content. B-cells stimulated to express endogenous AID and undergoclass switch recombination displayed a several-fold increase in total genomic uracil, indicating that Bcells may undergo widespread cytosine deamination after stimulation. In line with this, we found thatclustered mutations (kataegis) in lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia predominantly carryAID-hotspot mutational signatures. Moreover, we observed an inverse correlation of genomic uracil withuracil excision activity and expression of the uracil-DNA glycosylases UNG and SMUG1. In conclusion,AID-induced mutagenic U:G mismatches in DNA may be a fundamental and common cause of mutationsin B-cell malignancies. © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-NDlicense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

Uracil-DNA glycosylase, UNG2, interacts with PCNA and initiates post-replicative base excision repair (BER) of uracil in DNA. The DNA repair protein XRCC1 also co-localizes and physically interacts with PCNA. However, little is known about whether UNG2 and XRCC1 directly interact and participate in a same complex for repair of uracil in replication foci. Here, we examine localization pattern of these proteins in live and fixed cells and show that UNG2 and XRCC1 are likely in a common complex in replication foci. Using pull-down experiments we demonstrate that UNG2 directly interacts with the nuclear localization signal-region (NLS) of XRCC1. Western blot and functional analysis of immunoprecipitates from whole cell extracts prepared from S-phase enriched cells demonstrate the presence of XRCC1 complexes that contain UNG2 in addition to separate XRCC1 and UNG2 associated complexes with distinct repair features. XRCC1 complexes performed complete repair of uracil with higher efficacy than UNG2 complexes. Based on these results, we propose a model for a functional role of XRCC1 in replication associated BER of uracil.

Uracil in DNA may result from incorporation of dUMP during replication and from spontaneous or enzymatic deamination of cytosine, resulting in U:A pairs or U:G mismatches, respectively. Uracil generated by activation-induced cytosine deaminase (AID) in B cells is a normal intermediate in adaptive immunity. Five mammalian uracil-DNA glycosylases have been identified; these are mitochondrial UNG1 and nuclear UNG2, both encoded by the UNG gene, and the nuclear proteins SMUG1, TDG and MBD4. Nuclear UNG2 is apparently the sole contributor to the post-replicative repair of U:A lesions and to the removal of uracil from U:G contexts in immunoglobulin genes as part of somatic hypermutation and class-switch recombination processes in adaptive immunity. All uracil-DNA glycosylases apparently contribute to U:G repair in other cells, but they are likely to have different relative significance in proliferating and non-proliferating cells, and in different phases of the cell cycle. There are also some indications that there may be species differences in the function of the uracil-DNA glycosylases.

DNA glycosylases UNG and SMUG1 excise uracil from DNA and belong to the same protein superfamily. Vertebrates contain both SMUG1 and UNG, but their distinct roles in base excision repair (BER) of deaminated cytosine (U:G) are still not fully defined. Here we have examined the ability of human SMUG1 and UNG2 (nuclear UNG) to initiate and coordinate repair of U:G mismatches. When expressed in Escherichia coli cells, human UNG2 initiates complete repair of deaminated cytosine, while SMUG1 inhibits cell proliferation. In vitro, we show that SMUG1 binds tightly to AP-sites and inhibits AP-site cleavage by AP-endonucleases. Furthermore, a specific motif important for the AP-site product binding has been identified. Mutations in this motif increase catalytic turnover due to reduced product binding. In contrast, the highly efficient UNG2 lacks product-binding capacity and stimulates AP-site cleavage by APE1, facilitating the two first steps in BER. In summary, this work reveals that SMUG1 and UNG2 coordinate the initial steps of BER by distinct mechanisms. UNG2 is apparently adapted to rapid and highly coordinated repair of uracil (U:G and U:A) in replicating DNA, while the less efficient SMUG1 may be more important in repair of deaminated cytosine (U:G) in non-replicating chromatin.