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Background: Arthropod vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, sandflies and biting midges are of public and veterinary health significance because of the pathogens they can transmit. Understanding their distributions is a key means of assessing risk. VectorNet maps their distribution in the EU and surrounding areas. Aim: We aim to describe the methodology underlying VectorNet maps, encourage standardisation and evaluate output. Methods: Vector distribution and surveillance activity data have been collected since 2010 from a combination of literature searches, field-survey data by entomologist volunteers via a network facilitated for each participating country and expert validation. Data were collated by VectorNet members and extensively validated during data entry and mapping processes. Results: As of 2021, the VectorNet archive consisted of ca 475,000 records relating to> 330 species. Maps for 42 species are routinely produced online at subnational administrative unit resolution. On VectorNet maps, there are relatively few areas where surveillance has been recorded but there are no distribution data. Comparison with other continental databases, namely the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and VectorBase show that VectorNet has 5–10 times as many records overall, although three species are better represented in the other databases. In addition, VectorNet maps show where species are absent. VectorNet’s impact as assessed by citations (ca 60 per year) and web statistics (58,000 views) is substantial and its maps are widely used as reference material by professionals and the public. Conclusion: VectorNet maps are the pre-eminent source of rigorously validated arthropod vector maps for Europe and its surrounding areas.

Background: Arthropod vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, sandflies and biting midges are of public and veterinary health significance because of the pathogens they can transmit. Understanding their distributions is a key means of assessing risk. VectorNet maps their distribution in the EU and surrounding areas. Aim: We aim to describe the methodology underlying VectorNet maps, encourage standardisation and evaluate output. Methods: Vector distribution and surveillance activity data have been collected since 2010 from a combination of literature searches, field-survey data by entomologist volunteers via a network facilitated for each participating country and expert validation. Data were collated by VectorNet members and extensively validated during data entry and mapping processes. Results: As of 2021, the VectorNet archive consisted of ca 475,000 records relating to > 330 species. Maps for 42 species are routinely produced online at subnational administrative unit resolution. On VectorNet maps, there are relatively few areas where surveillance has been recorded but there are no distribution data. Comparison with other continental databases, namely the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and VectorBase show that VectorNet has 5–10 times as many records overall, although three species are better represented in the other databases. In addition, VectorNet maps show where species are absent. VectorNet's impact as assessed by citations (ca 60 per year) and web statistics (58,000 views) is substantial and its maps are widely used as reference material by professionals and the public. Conclusion: VectorNet maps are the pre-eminent source of rigorously validated arthropod vector maps for Europe and its surrounding areas.

Public and animal health authorities face many challenges in surveillance and control of vector-borne diseases. Those challenges are principally due to the multitude of interactions between vertebrate hosts, pathogens, and vectors in continuously changing environments. VectorNet, a joint project of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) facilitates risk assessments of VBD threats through the collection, mapping and sharing of distribution data for ticks, mosquitoes, sand flies, and biting midges that are vectors of pathogens of importance to animal and/or human health in Europe. We describe the development and maintenance of this One Health network that celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2020 and the value of its most tangible outputs, the vector distribution maps, that are freely available online and its raw data on request. VectorNet encourages usage of these maps by health professionals and participation, sharing and usage of the raw data by the network and other experts in the science community. For the latter, a more complete technical description of the mapping procedure will be submitted elsewhere.

The MODIRISK project studied mosquito biodiversity and monitored and predicted biodiversity changes, to actively prepare to address issues of biodiversity change, especially invasive species and new pathogen risks. This work is essential given continuing global changes that may create suitable conditions for invasive species spread and the (re-)emergence of vector-borne diseases in Europe. Key strengths of MODIRISK, in the context of sustainable development, were the links between biodiversity and health and the environment, and its contribution to the development of tools for describing the spatial distribution of mosquito biodiversity. MODIRISK addressed key topics of the global Diversitas initiative, which was a main driver of the Belspo ‘Science for a Sustainable Development’ research program. Three different MODIRISK datasets were published in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF): the Collection dataset (the Culicidae collection of the Museum of Natural History in Brussels); the Inventory dataset (data from the MODIRISK inventory effort); and the Longitudinal dataset (experiment data used for risk assessments).

BACKGROUND: Serological screening tests for Lyme borreliosis have poor specificity, with potential for misdiagnosis and unnecessary antimicrobial treatment.OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the impact of Lyme borreliosis seroprevalence and serologic test characteristics on the probability of obtaining a false-positive result and impact on antimicrobial use.STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional serological survey and modelling.METHODS: Sera from 303 horses in southern Belgium were analysed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Apparent seroprevalence was derived from serological data and a Bayesian estimate of true seroprevalence was computed. These were a starting point to model the impact of test and population characteristics on the probability of obtaining false-positive results and consequently unnecessary treatments and complications.RESULTS: Apparent and true seroprevalence were 22% (95% CI 18%-27%) and 11% (credible interval with 95% probability 0.6%-21%) respectively. We estimate that two-thirds of positive samples are false positive in southern Belgium, with one in five of tested horses potentially misdiagnosed as infected. Around 5% of antimicrobial use in equine veterinary practice in Belgium may be attributable to treatment of a false-positive result.MAIN LIMITATIONS: There was uncertainty regarding the ELISA's sensitivity and specificity.CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of appreciating the poor diagnostic value of ELISA screening for Lyme borreliosis as demonstrated by this case study of seroprevalence in southern Belgium where we demonstrate that a nontrivial number of horses is estimated to receive unwarranted treatment due to poor appreciation of screening test characteristics by practitioners, contributing substantially to unnecessary use of antimicrobials.

Meteorological conditions have a significant influence on the time of occurrence, abundance and activity of the mosquito vector. In the current context of climate change, it is of great importance to assess the impact of shifts in climatic conditions on the suitability for the establishment and annual activity of the vector species. Moreover, changes in the variability of meteorological elements and their extremes can generate unexpected changes in the mosquito vector population which in turn have an important effect on human health. One of the ways to put these causes and effects into perspective is to simulate the activity of the vector within a processbased framework which allows for the analysis of the contribution of individual factors on the different life stages of the vector. Such analysis is presented by use of sophisticated dynamical models simulating the characteristics of the biological population, forced by observed meteorological data, capturing the localmicro-environment of the vector habitat, and validated by the observed entomology.Numerical models are being developed to model vector population dynamics and the expected circulation of the virus within a closed system. Two modelling approaches are standardly applied to modelling vector population dynamics: Mechanistic and Stochastic. The advantage of mechanistic over statistical models is that they can provide a deterministic framework allowing for the isolated evaluation of each input parameter and their effect on the modelled system. Mechanistic dynamical models are used to describe the biophysical processes or part of the process as a response to changes in the meteorological conditions. The work carried out in this thesis can be summarized as follows: (i) Analysis of the association between the most important abiotic drivers influencing the population dynamics, annual activity and, Meteorološki uslovi bitno utiču na vreme pojave, brojnost vektora i njihovu aktivnost. U uslovima evidentnih promene klime, od ogromne je važnosti sagledati uticaj očekivanih promena klime na pogodnost uslova na pojavu izabranih vektora. Takodje, značajne promene kolebanja meteoroloških elemenata u odnosu na višegodišnji prosek i sve češće pojave nepovoljnih vremenskih prilika dovode do neočekivanog ponašanja populacije komarca što značajno utiče na kvalitet života i zdravlje ljudi. Jedini način da se sagledaju uzroci i posledice navedenih pojava zasniva se na simulaciji aktivnosti i brojnosti vektora uz mogućnost testiranja uticaja svakog pojedinačnog faktora. Ovu mogućnost pružaju samo visoko sofistikovani dinamički modeli koju su prošli proces kalibracije i validacije zasnovan na izmerenim vrednostima meteoroloških elemenata i karakteristika biološke populacije. Sofistikovani modeli za simulaciju dinamike populacije vektora i očekivane cirkulacije vektorskih transmisivnih bolesti se koriste sa ciljem modeliranja potencijalnog rizika od zaraze i epidemije. Modeli zasimulaciju dinamike vektora mogu da se podele na dve glavne grupe: Mehanističke i Statističke. Prednost mehanističkih modela nad statističkim je što mogu da se koriste za evaluaciju uticaja izolovanog faktora na dinamički sistem i odgovarajuće promene brojnosti unutar svake faze u razvoju vektora. Mehanistički dinamički sistemi se koriste kako bi se opisao mehanizam biofizičkog procesa ili dela procesa u zavisnosti od forsirajuće veličine. Predmet istraživanja u ovom radu jeste identifikovanje najznačajnijih bioloških i fizičkih procesa kao i odgovarajućih faktora koji utiču na brojnost i aktivnost vektora roda Aedes i Culex. Ciljevi istraživanja mogu da se sumiraju na sledeći način: (i) analiza najznačajnijih meteoroloških parametara koji utiču na vreme pojave, brojnost i aktivnost vektora A

Helminth infections are ubiquitous in grazing ruminant production systems, and are responsible for significant costs and production losses. Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) in parasites is now widespread throughout Europe, although there are still gaps in our knowledge in some regions and countries. AR is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A better understanding of the extent of AR in Europe is needed to develop and advocate more sustainable parasite control approaches. A database of European published and unpublished AR research on gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) and liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) was collated by members of the European COST Action "COMBAR" (Combatting Anthelmintic Resistance in Ruminants), and combined with data from a previous systematic review of AR in GIN. A total of 197 publications on AR in GIN were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980-2020. Reports of AR were present throughout the European continent and some reports indicated high within-country prevalence. Heuristic sample size-weighted estimates of European AR prevalence over the whole study period, stratified by anthelmintic class, varied between 0 and 48%. Estimated regional (country) prevalence was highly heterogeneous, ranging between 0% and 100% depending on livestock sector and anthelmintic class, and generally increased with increasing research effort in a country. In the few countries with adequate longitudinal data, there was a tendency towards increasing AR over time for all anthelmintic classes in GIN: aggregated results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to benzimidazoles (BZ) of 86%, macrocyclic lactones except moxidectin (ML) 52%, levamisole (LEV) 48%, and moxidectin (MOX) 21%. All

Helminth infections are ubiquitous in grazing ruminant production systems, and are responsible for significant costs and production losses. Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) in parasites is now widespread throughout Europe, although there are still gaps in our knowledge in some regions and countries. AR is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A better understanding of the extent of AR in Europe is needed to develop and advocate more sustainable parasite control approaches. A database of European published and unpublished AR research on gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) and liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) was collated by members of the European COST Action "COMBAR" (Combatting Anthelmintic Resistance in Ruminants), and combined with data from a previous systematic review of AR in GIN. A total of 197 publications on AR in GIN were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980-2020. Reports of AR were present throughout the European continent and some reports indicated high within-country prevalence. Heuristic sample size-weighted estimates of European AR prevalence over the whole study period, stratified by anthelmintic class, varied between 0 and 48%. Estimated regional (country) prevalence was highly heterogeneous, ranging between 0% and 100% depending on livestock sector and anthelmintic class, and generally increased with increasing research effort in a country. In the few countries with adequate longitudinal data, there was a tendency towards increasing AR over time for all anthelmintic classes in GIN: aggregated results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to benzimidazoles (BZ) of 86%, macrocyclic lactones except moxidectin (ML) 52%, levamisole (LEV) 48%, and moxidectin (MOX) 21%. All maj