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Abstract Background The harlequin syndrome is a rare disorder of the autonomic nervous system characterized by unilateral diminished flushing and sweating of the face following exposure to heat or physical activity. It results from sympathetic dysfunction and most commonly occurs idiopathically. A secondary development due to an underlying pathology (e.g., carotid artery dissection, tumors) must be excluded at first appearance. There is evidence that the cranial autonomic system is involved in the pathophysiology of trigeminal autonomic headaches like hemicrania continua. Therefore, an overlap in the pathophysiology of harlequin syndrome and trigeminal autonomic headache disorders seems plausible. However, the association of a harlequin syndrome with hemicrania continua was never reported. Case presentation This work describes the case of a 42‐year‐old female patient presenting to our headache unit. The patient reported persisting unilateral headache of the right side of dragging or squeezing character accompanied by trigeminal autonomic symptoms, including lacrimation, nasal congestion, conjunctival injection and Horner’s syndrome, and was responsive to treatment with 75mg/d indomethacin. Five months after the initial consultation, the patient noted that the upper right quadrant of her face was pale after jogging. A harlequin syndrome was diagnosed. Further, she developed a short-lasting, bilateral headache of pulsatile character during strenuous exercise consistent with exertional headache. Comprehensive diagnostic evaluations, encompassing cranial and cervical MRI scans, laboratory tests, and biopsies, culminated in the diagnosis of Sjögren’s syndrome. This finding suggests that the trigemino-autonomic dysfunction may either be idiopathic or a direct manifestation of Sjögren’s syndrome. Conclusions This report documents the case of a rare combination of a headache resembling probable hemicrania continua and the harlequin syndrome (and even exertional headache). It illustrates the underlying anatomy of the autonomic nervous system in a clinical context and emphasizes the hypothesis of a pathophysiological link between abnormal sympathetic activity and trigeminal autonomic headaches.

Background: The harlequin syndrome is a rare disorder of the autonomic nervous system characterized by unilateral diminished flushing and sweating of the face following exposure to heat or physical activity. It results from sympathetic dysfunction and most commonly occurs idiopathically. A secondary development due to an underlying pathology (e.g., carotid artery dissection, tumors) must be excluded at first appearance. There is evidence that the cranial autonomic system is involved in the pathophysiology of trigeminal autonomic headaches like hemicrania continua. Therefore, an overlap in the pathophysiology of harlequin syndrome and trigeminal autonomic headache disorders seems plausible. However, the association of a harlequin syndrome with hemicrania continua was never reported. Case presentation: This work describes the case of a 42‐year‐old female patient presenting to our headache unit. The patient reported persisting unilateral headache of the right side of dragging or squeezing character accompanied by trigeminal autonomic symptoms, including lacrimation, nasal congestion, conjunctival injection and Horner's syndrome, and was responsive to treatment with 75mg/d indomethacin. Five months after the initial consultation, the patient noted that the upper right quadrant of her face was pale after jogging. A harlequin syndrome was diagnosed. Further, she developed a short-lasting, bilateral headache of pulsatile character during strenuous exercise consistent with exertional headache. Comprehensive diagnostic evaluations, encompassing cranial and cervical MRI scans, laboratory tests, and biopsies, culminated in the diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome. This finding suggests that the trigemino-autonomic dysfunction may either be idiopathic or a direct manifestation of Sjögren's syndrome. Conclusions: This report documents the case of a rare combination of a headache resembling probable hemicrania continua and the harlequin syndrome (and even exertional headache). It illustrates the underlying anatomy of the autonomic nervous system in a clinical context and emphasizes the hypothesis of a pathophysiological link between abnormal sympathetic activity and trigeminal autonomic headaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs) are a well-defined subset of uncommon primary headaches that share comparable onset, pathophysiology and symptom patterns. TACs are characterised by the presentation of one-sided and high-intensity trigeminal pain together with unilateral cranial autonomic signs, which can include lacrimation, rhinorrhea, and miosis. The International Classification of Headache Disorders 3rd Edition recognises four different headache entities in this group, with cluster headache as the most recognised among them. Hemicrania continua (HC) and paroxysmal hemicrania (PH) are both distinctive cephalgias of which the diagnostic criteria include an absolute response to indomethacin. Consequently, for this reason they are often referred to as 'indomethacin-responsive' TACs. The main focus of this review was to discuss the state of knowledge regarding the pathophysiology and key characteristics of PH and HC. Given the limited understanding of these conditions, and their exceptionally uncommon prevalence, a correct diagnosis can pose a clinical challenge and the search for an effective treatment may be prolonged, which frequently has a serious impact upon patients' quality of life. The information provided in this review is meant to help physicians to differentiate indomethacin-sensitive cephalgias from other distinct headache disorders with a relatively similar clinical presentation, such as cluster headache, trigeminal neuralgia, and various migraine conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hemicrania continua is a primary unilateral headache characterized by ipsilateral parasympathetic and sympathetic autonomic features. A key diagnostic criterion is its dramatic response to indomethacin treatment; however, various vascular or structural abnormalities have been reported to cause secondary hemicrania continua, presenting with clinical features similar to those of the primary headache presentation. Objective: We reviewed the literature to compile secondary hemicrania continua cases, highlighting the importance of imaging during the evaluation. Additionally, we also contributed our three cases to the existing studies. Methods: We conducted a review of articles from the PubMed and EMBASE databases that described reported cases of secondary hemicrania continua, covering the period from 1993 to 2021. Our review included detailed patient information, signs, and symptoms of hemicrania continua, as well as information on indomethacin usage and headache resolution (if pertinent). Results: Secondary hemicrania continua can result from a remarkably diverse range of structural and vascular lesions, yet clinical reports on long‐term follow‐up are lacking. Notably, cases may exhibit a classical response to indomethacin, emphasizing the importance of neuroimaging in excluding secondary cases. Our search yielded 41 cases meeting our criteria. We excluded six cases that were not treated with indomethacin or were unresponsive to it. Additionally, we present three cases that highlight the necessity of neuroimaging in evaluating hemicrania continua, along with short‐ and long‐term clinical outcomes following indomethacin and lesion‐directed treatments. Case 1 presented with daily right‐sided headaches and cranial autonomic symptoms. Her pain completely resolved with indomethacin use. Neuroimaging of the brain revealed a laterally directed saccular aneurysm of the right internal carotid artery. Case 2 presented with continuous left‐sided unilateral headaches with superimposed exacerbations. She complained of left‐sided photophobia with a dull sensation in the left ear. Her symptoms decreased after 2 weeks of indomethacin use. Neuroimaging of the head indicated a benign tumor with mass effect into the left lateral medulla and inferior cerebellar peduncle. Case 3 presented with a right side‐locked headache with daily, severe superimposed exacerbations. She had photophobia in the right eye and a right‐sided Horner's syndrome, along with tearing during her exacerbations. Neuroimaging of the brain revealed a pituitary tumor and her pain completely resolved with indomethacin. Conclusion: Hemicrania continua is a rare headache disorder that can be either primary or secondary. Importantly, response to indomethacin can still occur in secondary hemicrania continua. Thus, neuroimaging should be considered to rule out underlying structural etiology in all cases, regardless of their clinical responsiveness to indomethacin therapy. Plain Language Summary: Hemicrania continua is a primary headache disorder, but in some patients the headache phenotype can be due to a secondary cause. We reviewed 46 published cases of patients with this headache phenotype and added three patients of our own; scans revealed additional serious, often treatable, problems in many of the cases. Clinicians should consider imaging studies when patients present with symptoms consistent with hemicrania continua, even if they respond to medication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose of Review: Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) and trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs) are both painful diseases which directly impact the branches of the trigeminal nerve, which supply the face. Patients who have experienced adverse effects, have not responded to mainstream treatments, or have a personal preference for nonmedication options, often turn to complementary and integrative medicine (CIM). The aim of this review is to discuss the efficacy and safety of CIM therapies available for the treatment of TN and TACs. Recent Findings: Not only are there limited therapeutic options for TN and TAC patients, but also is there a proportion of patients who are intolerant to standard medical treatments. Recent findings have illustrated that 86% of patients with headache disorders utilize CIM modalities in combination with mainstream medical therapy. Summary: CIM modalities can be helpful for these diseases and have primarily been studied in combination with standard medical therapy. There is limited evidence for CIM and behavioral therapies in managing these conditions, and more research is needed to confirm which therapies are safe and effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To look at cigarette smoking history (personal and secondary exposure as a child) in non-cluster headache trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias seen at a headache clinic and to determine smoking exposure prevalence utilizing previously published data. Methods: Retrospective chart review and PubMed/Google Scholar search Results: Forty-eight clinic patients met ICHD-3 criteria for non-cluster headache trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. Four had paroxysmal hemicrania, 75% were smokers and secondary exposure was noted in all. 16 patients had short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT) or short lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with autonomic symptoms (SUNA), 12.5% were smokers and secondary exposure was noted in 91%. Twenty-eight patients had hemicrania continua, 21% were smokers and secondary exposure was found in 62.5%. Since 1974 there have been 88 paroxysmal hemicrania, 50 SUNCT or SUNA and 89 hemicrania continua patients with a documented smoking exposure history. From current data and previous studies, a smoking history was noted in 60% paroxysmal hemicrania, 18% SUNCT and SUNA and 21% hemicrania continua patients. Conclusion: A cigarette smoking history appears to be connected to paroxysmal hemicrania (personal and secondary exposure) and possibly to SUNCT/SUNA (secondary) and hemicrania continua (secondary). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose of Review: Hemicrania Continua (HC) is a rare and disabling primary headache disorder that is characterized by persistent, unilateral headache with ipsilateral, cranial autonomic symptoms and restlessness or agitation. The diagnosis requires patients to experience an absolute response to therapeutic doses of indomethacin. Recent Findings: HC is diagnosed in in about 1.8% of adult patients who were evaluated for headache in tertiary care services, albeit this estimate should be interpreted with caution. The most prevalent accompanying symptoms appear to be lacrimation, conjunctival injection and restlessness or agitation. However, the available literature is limited by methodologic issues, and the current diagnostic criteria lack clarity on what defines absolute response to indomethacin. More rigorous studies are thus needed to improve our understanding of HC which, in turn, will facilitate better disease management in clinical practice. Summary: Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of HC, including its epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A clinical case of successful treatment of hemicrania continua with ophthalmic symptoms using acupuncture is presented.Chronic headache (CH) is an important medical and social problem. The fact is that CH is treated mainly medication-based. About 63 % of patients have to take analgesic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for a long time, while in most cases there are signs of drug overdose, which increases the risk of complications and side effects.The presented clinical case showed the acupuncture effectiveness in hemicrania continua with ophthalmic symptoms in a 23-year-old patient.Since the age of 13, the patient has been observed and repeatedly treated with complaints of persistent headaches on the left, pain in the left eye and decreased vision, accompanied by nausea, dizziness, weakness, fatigue, sleep disturbance. In 2019, against the background of constant daily intake of indomethacin, at a dosage of 9 tablets (225 mg) and a short course of glucocorticosteroids, positive dynamics of the left eye side and relative remission on the part of the pain syndrome were achieved. At the same time, choroidal ischemia with retinal edema persisted, headaches periodically occurred. Acupuncture had been performed during 6 months, 1–2 times every 14–28 days, depending on the patient’s condition, against the background of a gradual reduction in the dose of indomethacin. Complete remission has been achieved. After the end of treatment and complete withdrawal of the drug the patient has been under control for more than 3 months. The patient’s condition is satisfactory, no complaints.

Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs) are discrete primary headache disorders, characterized by severe unilateral head pain, typically trigeminal distribution, with ipsilateral cranial autonomic symptoms. The conditions within this group are hemicrania continua, cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, and short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection and tearing and short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with autonomic symptoms. Several advances have been made in understanding the pathogenesis and evolving treatment options in TACs. This review will outline the advances and updates in each TAC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Headaches with marked, specific response to indomethacin occur in children, but the phenotypic spectrum of this phenomenon has not been well-studied. Methods: We reviewed pediatric patients with headache showing ≥80% improvement with indomethacin, from seven academic medical centers. Results: We included 32 pediatric patients (16 females). Mean headache onset age was 10.9 y (range 2–16 y). Headache syndromes included hemicrania continua (n = 13), paroxysmal hemicrania (n = 10), primary stabbing headache (n = 2), short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (n = 1), primary exercise headache (n = 1) and primary cough headache (n = 1). Adverse events were reported in 13, most commonly gastrointestinal symptoms, which often improved with co-administration of gastro-protective agents. Conclusion: Indomethacin-responsive headaches occur in children and adolescents, and include headache syndromes, such as primary cough headache, previously thought to present only in adulthood. The incidence of adverse events is high, and patients must be co-treated with a gastroprotective agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias and complex regional pain syndrome are rare conditions, and their co-occurrence has not been reported previously. Clinical findings: In two patients, ipsilateral trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias developed after the onset of upper limb complex regional pain syndrome. Hyperalgesia to thermal and mechanical stimuli extended beyond the affected limb to encompass the ipsilateral forehead, and was accompanied by ipsilateral hyperacusis and photophobia. In addition, examination of the painful limb and bright light appeared to aggravate symptoms of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. Detailed examination of the association between facial and upper limb pain indicated that both sources of pain cycled together. Furthermore, in one case, stellate ganglion blockade inhibited pain for an extended period not only in the affected limb but also the face. Conclusions: These findings suggest some overlap in the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome and trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. Specifically, central sensitization and/or disruption of inhibitory pain modulation on the affected side of the body in complex regional pain syndrome might trigger ipsilateral cranial symptoms and increase vulnerability to trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Unlike other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, indomethacin has been shown to be highly effective in two forms of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, hemicrania continua and paroxysmal hemicrania and in some forms of idiopathic stabbing headaches. This specificity is unique in the headache field. Previous findings suggest the involvement of the trigeminal autonomic reflex to play an important role in the pathophysiology of these diseases. Methods: 22 healthy participants were enrolled in a double-blind, three-day within-subject design. The participants received indomethacin, ibuprofen or placebo in a randomized order. After an incubation period of 65 min the baseline lacrimation and the lacrimation during intranasal stimulation evoked by kinetic oscillation stimulation were assessed using Schirmer II lacrimation tests. The lacrimation difference in mm was calculated and compared in a repeated measures ANOVA. Results: No significant differences were found between the three conditions. Conclusion: In our study, neither indomethacin nor ibuprofen had an inhibitory effect on the trigeminal autonomic reflex. We suggest that blocking this reflex may not be the treatment mechanism of indomethacin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resumen: Introducción: En el campo de las cefaleas, onabotulinumtoxinA (onabotA) tiene indicación bien establecida en la migraña crónica (MC). Además, en los últimos años su uso se está extendiendo a otras cefaleas primarias (migraña episódica de alta frecuencia, cefaleas trigémino-autonómicas, cefalea numular) y a la neuralgia del trigémino. Al ser una opción terapéutica que se va a ir incorporando de forma progresiva en el manejo de estas entidades, creemos que es necesario reflejar con un carácter eminentemente práctico cuáles son las posibles indicaciones de onabotA, más allá de la MC, así como su protocolo de administración, que diferirá en función del tipo de cefalea y/o neuralgia. Desarrollo: A partir de una revisión de la bibliografía existente y de nuestra propia experiencia clínica, se ha elaborado este documento de consenso cuyo objetivo es servir de guía a aquellos profesionales que quieran aplicar estas técnicas en su actividad asistencial. En la primera parte se abordará el mecanismo de acción de onabotA y la razón de su utilización en diversas cefaleas distintas de la MC desde un punto de vista fisiopatológico y clínico. En la segunda parte se hará una revisión de la evidencia disponible y los estudios publicados en los últimos años. Para cada una de estas entidades, se añadirá una «recomendación de experto», basada en la propia experiencia clínica, que refleje el perfil de paciente que puede ser candidato a este tratamiento, las dosis y el protocolo de administración de onabotA. Conclusión: El tratamiento con onabotA en entidades distintas a la MC debe ser siempre individualizado y se planteará en pacientes seleccionados que no hayan respondido a la terapia convencional. Abstract: Introduction: In the field of headaches, onabotulinumtoxinA (onabotA) is well established as a treatment for chronic migraine (CM). In recent years, it has been used increasingly to treat other primary headaches (high-frequency episodic migraine, trigeminal-autonomic cephalalgias, nummular headache) and trigeminal neuralgia. As this treatment will progressively be incorporated in the management of these patients, we consider it necessary to reflect, with a fundamentally practical approach, on the possible indications of onabotA, beyond CM, as well as its administration protocol, which will differ according to the type of headache and/or neuralgia. Development: This consensus document was drafted based on a thorough review and analysis of the existing literature and our own clinical experience. The aim of the document is to serve as guidelines for professionals administering onabotA treatment. The first part will address onabotA's mechanism of action, and reasons for its use in other types of headache, from a physiopathological and clinical perspective. In the second part, we will review the available evidence and studies published in recent years. We will add an “expert recommendation” based on our own clinical experience, showing the best patient profile for this treatment and the most adequate dose and administration protocol. Conclusion: Treatment with onabotA should always be individualised and considered in selected patients who have not responded to conventional therapy.

Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TAC) are excruciating headaches with limited treatment options. The chronic forms of TACs, including chronic cluster, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, and hemicrania continua, are disabling conditions. In addition to drug therapy, there are some studies regarding nerve blocking and nerve stimulation with acceptable results. Here we report four cases of decompression nerve surgery with promising results on pain control in these difficult to treat headaches.

Introduction: Botulinum neurotoxin type-A (BoNTA) is licensed for the treatment of chronic migraine (CM), but it has been tested off-label as a therapeutic choice in other primary headaches (PHs). We aimed to provide a systematic review and expert opinion on BoNTA use in PHs, beyond CM. Areas covered: After providing an overview on PHs and mechanism of BoNTA action, we report the results of a systematic review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations, of BoNTA therapeutic trials in PHs beyond CM. Studies and results were reviewed and discussed, and levels of evidence were graded. We also collected data on relevant ongoing trials. Expert opinion: Although there are contradictory findings on PHs other than CM, BoNTA may represent a therapeutic option for patients who do not respond to conventional prophylactic treatments. Based on limited available evidence, BoNTA may be considered in refractory tension-type headache, trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, primary stabbing headache, nummular headache, hypnic headache, and new daily persistent headache, after the primary nature of cephalalgia has been documented and other drugs have failed. Experienced physicians in BoNTA treatment are required to guide the therapeutic protocol for each patient to optimize good and safe outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many clinicians lack experience in managing trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs) in pregnancy and lactation. In addition to cluster headache, TACs include hemicrania continua, paroxysmal hemicrania, and short‐lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with conjunctival injection and tearing/autonomic symptoms (SUNCT/SUNA). Treating these rare, severe headache conditions often requires off‐label drugs that have uncertain teratogenic potential. In the last few years, several new treatment options and safety documentation have emerged, but clinical guidelines are lacking. This narrative review aimed to provide an updated clinical guide and good clinical practice recommendations for the management of these debilitating headache disorders in pregnancy and lactation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To report two cases of hemicrania continua (HC) in a mother and daughter. Background: HC is a rare primary headache disorder belonging to the family of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs). Unlike migraine, familial cases of TACs are rare, and we know relatively little of their inheritance pattern and genetic mechanisms. Methods: We present a mother and daughter with HC. We compare the similarities and differences between this family and the first report of familial HC and discuss the implications for future studies. Results: Both the mother and daughter presented with a constant, side‐locked headache of moderate intensity, with episodic exacerbations of more severe pain that are associated with ipsilateral cranial autonomic activation. After negative workup, both patients were started on indomethacin and achieved absolute response at different doses, confirming HC. Conclusions: Our report further corroborates other reports of familial TACs that TACs are primary headaches possibly attributable to genetic factors, albeit detailed mechanisms remain elusive. Nevertheless, whether clinical presentation and treatment responses would be substantially different between sporadic and familial HCs remain unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TAC) are excruciating headaches with limited treatment options. The chronic forms of TACs, including chronic cluster, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, and hemicrania continua, are disabling conditions. In addition to drug therapy, there are some studies regarding nerve blocking and nerve stimulation with acceptable results. Here we report four cases of decompression nerve surgery with promising results on pain control in these difficult to treat headaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Orofacial pain may have a variety of causes and offers a significant clinical challenge for its diagnosis and management. Objective To assess the headache disorders presenting in a tertiary multidisciplinary orofacial pain clinic, after dental causes have been excluded. Methods Clinic letters from the initial consultation and subsequent follow up reviews of the 142 patients, who were seen in the tertiary Multidisciplinary Orofacial Pain clinic between January 2015 until January 2018 were reviewed as a clinical audit. Results The most common diagnoses were possible trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia (n = 62, 44%), migraine (n = 38, 27%) and painful post-traumatic trigeminal neuropathy (n = 17, 12%). The most common trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia diagnosis was hemicrania continua (n = 13, 9%), which is higher than the reported prevalence in neurology and headache clinics. Conclusion This study demonstrates the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to diagnosing complex orofacial pain patients and the importance of awareness of primary headache disorders, in particular trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, thereby reducing unnecessary diagnostic delays or procedures.

Abstract Background The trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias are a group of primary headache syndromes marked by severe head pain and associated cranial autonomic symptoms which can include a full or partial Horner’s syndrome. Rarely, the eye-related symptoms will become fixed even between headache attacks. There is minimal documentation that the Horner’s syndrome can be reversed if successful treatment of the underlying headache disorder is initiated. Case reports Two cases are presented of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia subtypes with chronic persistent Horner’s syndromes that alleviated with treatment of the underlying primary headache disorder. Patient 1, an 82-year-old Caucasian woman, presented with hemicrania continua with a partial Horner’s syndrome that was present for 2 years. She was unable to take indomethacin as she was on anticoagulation. After a C2–3 diagnostic facet injection, not only did she become pain free but her ptosis completely resolved. She then underwent a radiofrequency facet neurotomy with complete alleviation of head pain and complete resolution of her ptosis. Patient 2, a 21-year-old Caucasian woman, presented with long-lasting autonomic symptoms with hemicrania syndrome and a fixed miosis and ptosis of 6 months’ duration. After achieving 2 months of pain freedom on indomethacin her Horner’s syndrome completely resolved. Conclusion A chronic fixed partial or full Horner’s syndrome can occur in trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia subtypes, but it can also be reversed in patients with treatment even after months to years of duration. This would suggest that the sympathetic dysfunction leading to the eye-related symptoms is from irritation of the sympathetic chain rather than permanent injury as the result of vasodilatory trauma after trigeminal autonomic reflex activation.

Abstract The coexistence of hemicrania‐continua and trigeminal neuralgia is called HC‐tic syndrome. We describe a case of an elderly man who suffered both types of headache related to fungal sphenoiditis. This is the first case to be reported, to the best of our knowledge.

Background: Indomethacin is a nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drug whose mechanism of action in certain types of headache disorders remains unknown. The so‐called indomethacin‐responsive headache disorders consist of a group of conditions with a very different presentation that have a particularly good response to indomethacin. The response is so distinct as to be used in the definition of two: hemicrania continua and paroxysmal hemicrania. Methods: This is a narrative literature review. PubMed and the Cochrane databases were used for the literature search. Results: We review the main pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties of indomethacin useful for daily practice. The proposed mechanisms of action of indomethacin in the responsive headache disorders, including its effect on cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure, with special attention to nitrergic mechanisms, are covered. The current evidence for its use in primary headache disorders, such as some trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, cough, hypnic, exertional or sexual headache, and migraine will be covered, as well as its indication for secondary headaches, such as those of posttraumatic origin. Conclusion: Increasing understanding of the mechanism(s) of action of indomethacin will enhance our understanding of the complex pathophysiology that might be shared by indomethacin‐sensitive headache disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coexistence of hemicrania‐continua and trigeminal neuralgia is called HC‐tic syndrome. We describe a case of an elderly man who suffered both types of headache related to fungal sphenoiditis. This is the first case to be reported, to the best of our knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hemicrania continua (HC) is not uncommon in clinical practice, and several large case series have been published in the recent past.Objectives: This review provides an overview of the recent advancement in different aspects of HC.Methods: We reviewed the articles published on HC in the last 2 decades.Results: HC constitutes 1.7% of patients with headache in the clinics. It presents with unilateral continuous background pain with periodic exacerbations, usually accompanied by cranial autonomic features and restlessness. The continuous background headache is the most consistent and central feature of HC. Although the duration of exacerbations varies from a few seconds to a few weeks, the frequency ranges from >20 attacks/day to one attack in several months. The background pain is mild to moderate in intensity and does not hamper routine activity. Patients and physicians frequently ignore the basal pain, and a case of HC is misdiagnosed as other headaches, depending on the pattern of exacerbations. The exacerbation mimics several primary headaches and neuralgias. There are about 75 cases of secondary HC, due to 29 different pathologies. Although an absolute response to indomethacin is part of the diagnostic criteria, a subset of patients may respond to several other drugs. Headache reappears immediately on skipping a single dose of effective drug. Several surgical procedures have been tried in patients who are intolerant to indomethacin.Conclusion: Misdiagnosis of HC is common. Continuous background pain and response to indomethacin are two essential features for the diagnosis of HC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paroxysmal Hemicrania (PH) is classified under trigeminal autonomic cephalalgia (TAC) as per the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD). Since the first description by 0ttar Sjaastad and Inge Dale in 1974, PH has been reported by many authors. A greater understanding of PH phenotype and pathophysiology has resulted in the evolution of its diagnostic criteria, and management. We tabulated major case series of PH to describe the epidemiology, clinical features and recent updates of PH. PH is a rare headache characterized by daily, multiple paroxysms of unilateral, short-lasting (mean duration <20 minutes), side-locked headache in the distribution of ophthalmic division of trigeminal nerve with associated profound cranial autonomic symptoms. Recent ICHD classification added "restlessness" to the criteria for PH. Pain should completely respond to indomethacin to fulfil the diagnostic criteria of PH. PH should be differentiated from cluster headache, SUNCT/SUNA, and other short-lasting side-locked headaches. Trigeminal afferents possibly produce pain in PH and trigeminal-autonomic reflex explains the occurrence of autonomic features. Recently, a "permissive" central role of the hypothalamus is unveiled based on functional imaging studies. Other Cox-2 inhibitors, topiramate, calcium-channel blockers, epicranial nerve blocks have been shown to improve headache in some patients of PH who cannot tolerate indomethacin. Hypothalamic deep brain stimulation has been used in treatment-refractory cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemicrania continua (HC) is responsive to indomethacin, which is useful both for acute treatment and for chronic suppressive therapy. However, this medication is poorly tolerated in many patients. The treatment of indomethacin-intolerant HC is poorly defined. We present a patient with HC who developed acute kidney injury on indomethacin and proved refractory to multiple other treatment modalities. She had an excellent response to botulinum toxin, with a duration of benefit similar to that reported previously in HC and in chronic migraine. Botulinum toxin may be a therapeutic option in patient with HC who do not tolerate indomethacin. The possible mechanisms of action of botulinum toxin in HC are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose of Review: This review presents a critical appraisal of the treatment strategies for short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks (SUNHA), paroxysmal hemicrania (PH), and hemicrania continua (HC). We assess the available, though sparse, evidence on both medical and surgical treatments. In addition, we present estimated pooled analyses of the most common treatments and emphasize recent promising findings. Recent Findings: The majority of literature available on the treatment of these rare trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias are small open-label observational studies and case reports. Pooled analyses reveal that lamotrigine for SUNHA and indomethacin for PH and HC are the preventative treatments of choice. Second-line choices include topiramate, gabapentin, and carbamazepine for SUNHA; verapamil for PH; and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and gabapentin for HC. Parenteral lidocaine is highly effective as a transitional treatment for SUNHA. Novel therapeutic strategies such as non-invasive neurostimulation, targeted nerve and ganglion blockades, and invasive neurostimulation, including implanted occipital nerve stimulators and deep brain stimulation, appears to be promising options. Summary: At present, lamotrigine as a prophylactic and parenteral lidocaine as transitional treatment remain the therapies of choice for SUNHA. While, by definition, both PH and CH respond exquisitely to indomethacin, evidence for other prophylactics is less convincing. Evidence for the novel emerging therapies is limited, though promising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemicrania continua (HC) is a rare primary headache disorder, characterized by persistent unilateral pain associated with cranial autonomic symptoms and prompt response to indomethacin. While migrainous features (including aura) have been recognized in cluster headache, there have been only single reports of HC with aura. Here, we report the case of a 53-year-old man with constant right-sided headache and superimposed exacerbations to severe pain lasting for several hours. Secondary etiologies were excluded, and a diagnosis of HC was established after prompt and complete response to treatment with indomethacin. During an episode of pain exacerbation, for the first time the patient experienced an episode of transient visual disturbances compatible with scintillating scotoma. We propose a potential link between HC and visual aura, which parallels similar observations in other trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias and more specifically confirms previous observational data on aura in HC, thus highlighting potentially shared pathophysiological mechanisms.

The term trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs) encompasses four primary headache disorders – cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania (PH), hemicrania continua (HC), short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT)/short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA). All of these except HC are characterized by short-lasting headaches. HC is characterized by a continuous unilateral headache that waxes and wanes in its intensity without complete resolution. It is included in the TACs group given the overlap in the activation of the posterior hypothalamic grey, and the shared clinical feature of unilateral head pain with ipsilateral cranial autonomic symptoms. The present review gives an overview of the nosologic evolution, diagnosis, and management of TACs.

Hemicrania continua (HC) is an indomethacin responsive primary chronic headache disorder which is currently classified as a subtype of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias (TACs). It is not very uncommon. There are >1000 cases of HC in the literature, and it constitutes 1.7% of total headache in the clinic settings. Misdiagnosis for HC is very common at all clinical settings. A diagnosis of HC is missed even by neurologists and headache specialists. It is characterized by a continuous strictly unilateral headache with superimposed exacerbations. Just like other TACs, exacerbations are associated with cranial autonomic symptoms and restlessness. A large number of patients may have migrainous features (nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia) during exacerbations phase. The “key” feature of HC is persistent featureless background headaches. However, patients and physicians may focus only on the exacerbation part. As durations, frequency and associated symptoms of exacerbations are highly variables; it may mimic a large number of primary and secondary headache disorders. Migraine and cluster headache are two most common misdiagnosed conditions. Another specific feature of HC is remarkable repose to indomethacin. A “complete” response to indomethacin is as “sine qua non” for HC. However, a few other medications may also be effective in a subset of HC patients. Various surgical procedures have been tried with mixed results in patients who were intolerant to indomethacin or other drugs.

Background: Trigemino-autonomic cephalalgias are very rare disorders and even rarer in children and adolescents. We report the onset of paroxysmal hemicrania in a very young girl and reviewed the scientific literature for similar cases.Findings: We describe the case of a 1.6-year-old girl with left-sided headache attacks fulfilling the criteria of paroxysmal hemicrania including prompt responsiveness to indomethacin. In addition, we detected at least two children for every trigemino-autonomic cephalalgias subtype with an age of under 7 years at the onset of the trigemino-autonomic cephalalgias. Remarkable features were a vast majority of chronic course from onset on and left-sided attacks.Conclusion: Although very rare, trigemino-autonomic cephalalgias can occur even in very young children under the age of 6 years. This should be known in neuropaediatrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Headache and facial pain are both very high in the general population. Headache has been identified as one of the associated conditions in patients with chronic orofacial pain. The interrelation between the two has not been explored in the literature. Patients with facial pain often initially seek the care of a dentist. Misdiagnosis and multiple failed treatments (including invasive procedures) are very common in this population. This case report describes four patients whose condition fulfilled the International Headache Society's criteria for hemicrania continua but whose teeth were extracted because their pain was suspected to be of odontogenic origin. Each patient's records and the literature were reviewed for possible reasons for the unnecessary extractions. The findings suggest that initial treatment with drugs specific for primary headache disorders should be instituted before subjecting patients to invasive procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]