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Our aim was to assess endoparasite diversity and liver alterations in Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus (jeju) and Cichlasoma bimaculatum (acará preto) in a quilombola area in Maranhão, Brazil. For this, 21 H. unitaeniatus and 21 C. bimaculatum were caught in a natural environment and transported to a laboratory. After these had been euthanized, endoparasites were collected and identified. Liver alterations were evaluated histological analysis based on the severity of each lesion: stage I, organ functioning not compromised; stage II, more severe lesions that impair normal functioning of the organs; and stage III, very severe and irreversible lesions. Among the fish evaluated, 71.43% H. unitaeniatus and 61.90% C. bimaculatum were parasitized. Contracaecum sp. was found in both species; while acanthocephalans, only in H. unitaeniatus. The alterations were vacuolization, nucleus in the cell periphery, deformation of the cell outline, melanomacrophage center, hyperemia, cytoplasmic degeneration and nuclear vacuolization. Through calculating a histological alteration index, it was found that 26.19% of the specimens presented lesions in stage I; 38.09% lesions in stage II and 9.52% lesions in stage III. It was concluded that there is high prevalence of Contracaecum sp. and that the liver lesions may be adaptive responses by the fish to endoparasitic infection.

A case of Acanthocephala infection in a 5-year-old female rehabilitated and released black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla), which was part of a post-release monitoring program of a pangolin research operation in the Central African Republic, is described. This represents the first report of Acanthocephala infection in this species, which lead to intestinal perforation, secondary peritonitis and ultimately to the death of the animal concerned. It is of relevance to alert the pangolin conservation and research community to a so far unreported cause of death. A case history and necropsy findings, as well as preliminary parasite identification and genetic characterization which potentially revealed a new gigantorhynchid taxon are presented., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Increasing evidence suggests that nutritional manipulation of the commensal gut microbiota (GM) may play a key role in maintaining animal health and production in an era of reduced antimicrobial usage. Gastrointestinal helminth infections impose a considerable burden on animal performance, and recent studies suggest that infection may substantially alter the composition and function of the GM. Here, we discuss the potential interactions between different bioactive dietary components (prebiotics, probiotics and phytonutrients) and helminth infection on the GM in livestock. A number of recent studies suggest that host diet can strongly influence the nature of the helminth-GM interaction. Nutritional manipulation of the GM may thus impact helminth infection, and conversely infection may also influence how the GM responds to dietary interventions. Moreover, a dynamic interaction exists between helminths, the GM, intestinal immune responses, and inflammation. Deciphering the mechanisms underlying the diet-GM-helminth axis will likely inform future helminth control strategies, as well as having implications for how health-promoting feed additives, such as probiotics, can play a role in sustainable animal production.

Carnivorous birds maintain parasites in the sylvatic cycle and have a role in their diffusion. The histopathology and ultrastructure of the intestine of 29 Hooded Crows (Corvus corone cornix) and 51 Eurasian Magpies (Pica pica), from the Province of Ferrara (Northern Italy), naturally infected with Sphaerirostris picae (Acanthocephala), were investigated. In both bird species, the prevalence of infection was around 10%, and the intensity of the infection in the Hooded Crows ranged from two to 12 acanthocephalans per host, whereas in the Eurasian Magpies it ranged from one to nine worms per bird. Previous records on the histopathology of acanthocephalans in birds do not provide information on the type of cells involved in the host's reaction. We aimed to gain information on the effects of acanthocephalans on the structural integrity of the birds' intestine and to describe the type of immune cells in the hosts against the parasite. Our results showed that S. picae disrupted the intestinal wall at the site of attachment by means of its neck and proboscis, and three main types of bird intestinal reactions were noticed. The most severe response of the hosts was against the proboscis because of the action of its hooks with recruitment of macrophages, giant cells, eosinophils, and heterophils. Sphaerirostris picae perforated the birds' entire intestinal wall, reaching the peritoneal visceral serosa, but it did not provoke a diffuse peritonitis., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2021.)

In this study, we described the morphological features and unusual presentations of hydatidosis, fasciolosis, and eosinophilic myositis caused by Sarcocystis species diagnosed at the slaughterhouse lines. Twenty-seven samples of atypical parasitic lesions from distinct cattle were evaluated, of which 12 corresponded to hydatidosis, 11 to fasciolosis, and 4 to eosinophilic sarcocystosis. Hydatid cysts were observed mainly in the heart, with all cases involving the left ventricle. Fasciolosis lesions involved mainly the lungs, and were characterized by a focal nodular elevated area involving the edges of the lobes. Intralesional trematodes were observed in three cases. Sarcocystosis lesions were observed in four cases, and lesions were primarily located in the skeletal and cardiac muscles. Grossly, they presented as focal or focally extensive streaks, patches, or numerous nodules that were greenish to mildly yellowish. Histologically, all the cases had intralesional ruptured cysts of Sarcocystis that were associated with severe eosinophilic myositis and myocarditis. Parasitic lesions in atypical locations and/or with aberrant responses should be promptly identified because it may mistakenly diagnosed as other potentially zoonotic diseases, such as cysticercosis and tuberculosis.

In the present study, we analyzed the morphology of three genetic types of the bird-infecting acanthocephalan Polymorphus cf. minutus (PspT1, PspT2, PspT3), mainly based on the cystacanth-stage obtained from amphipods (Gammarus fossarum, Gammarus pulex, Gammarus roeselii, Echinogammarus spp.). Males and females were pooled as there was no considerable difference between the sexes concerning the hook measurements. Additionally, we conducted a laboratory infection of one domestic duck for each Polymorphus type, to compare their performance and localization in this host species, and to obtain adult specimens for morphological comparison. The recovery rate from the ducks 4 weeks after infection was 16% for PspT1, 23.8% for PspT2, and 25% for PspT3. The adult worms were gravid, and the females contained mature eggs. Hook size did not differ considerably between cystacanths and adults of the respective type. The three Polymorphus types could be distinguished based on the cystacanth stage by a linear discriminant analysis that included hook measurements, proboscis length, proboscis width, and number of longitudinal hook rows and hooks per row. Furthermore, PspT3 was more different from PspT1 and PspT2 than the latter types from each other. Mainly the number of longitudinal hook rows differed in PspT3 from the existing descriptions of P. minutus (mainly 14 vs. mainly 16 rows). Potentially, PspT3 could be a non-indigenous parasite that was introduced with G. roeselii and that adapted to use the indigenous G. pulex as a host, while PspT2 might have been introduced to central Europe together with Echinogammarus spp.

Black-necked swans are distributed across South America and face conservation problems in Chile according to data of the State institution SAG. The aim of this study was to identify helminths and to assess associated tissue damage via histopathology. A total of 19,291 parasites were isolated from 21 examined birds; 17 species were identified, including nematodes, flukes, and tapeworms. Of these, 12 were new host records, 13 were reported for the first time in Chile, and 5 were new records for the Neotropical region. Further, the flukes Schistosomatidae gen. sp. and Echinostoma echinatum are of zoonotic concern. Regarding histopathology, an inflammatory response was found along the birds' entire digestive tract. Nevertheless, it is difficult to declare that there is a clear association between such lesions and isolated parasites, as other noxa could be responsible as well. Although in some cases there was an evident association, such inflammatory responses and necrosis were minimal, as occurred with Capillaria, Retinometra, Catatropis, Echinostoma, and Schistosomatidae gen. sp. Nevertheless, Epomidiostomum vogelsangi caused granulomatous injuries, an important inflammatory response, and necrosis, but it always circumscribed to superficial layers of the gizzard. Conversely, Paramonostomum was not associated with an inflammatory response despite a high parasitic load.

We identified multiple extraintestinal cystacanths during routine postmortem examination of 3 small Indian mongooses and 2 African green monkeys from the Caribbean island of St. Kitts. In mongooses, cystacanths were encysted or free in the subcutaneous tissue, skeletal muscle, or peritoneal or pericardial cavities, whereas in the monkeys, they were in the cavity and parietal layer of the, tunica vaginalis, skeletal muscle, and peritoneal cavity. Morphological, histological, and molecular characterization identified these cystacanths as Oncicola venezuelensis (Acanthocephala: Oligacanthorhynchidae). There was minimal to mild lymphoplasmacytic inflammation associated with the parasite in the mongooses and moderate inflammation, mineralization, hemorrhage, and fibrosis in the connective tissue between the testis and epididymis in 1 monkey. We identified a mature male O. venezuelensis attached in the aboral jejunum of a feral cat, confirming it as the definitive host. Termites serve as intermediate hosts and lizards as paratenic hosts. This report emphasizes the role of the small Indian mongoose and African green monkey as paratenic hosts for O. venezuelensis .

The early replication of some orally-acquired prion strains upon stromal-derived follicular dendritic cells (FDC) within the small intestinal Peyer's patches is essential to establish host infection, and for the disease to efficiently spread to the brain. Factors that influence the early accumulation of prions in Peyer's patches can directly influence disease pathogenesis. The host's immune response to a gastrointestinal helminth infection can alter susceptibility to co-infection with certain pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Here we used the natural mouse small intestine-restricted helminth pathogen Heligmosomoides polygyrus to test the hypothesis that pathology specifically within the small intestine caused by a helminth co-infection would influence oral prion disease pathogenesis. When mice were co-infected with prions on d 8 after H. polygyrus infection the early accumulation of prions within Peyer's patches was reduced and survival times significantly extended. Natural prion susceptible hosts such as sheep, deer and cattle are regularly exposed to gastrointestinal helminth parasites. Our data suggest that co-infections with small intestine-restricted helminth pathogens may be important factors that influence oral prion disease pathogenesis.

The objective of the present study was to describe the histology and histochemistry of the mucosal layer of the digestive tube of Piaractus brachypomus, and the histopathology associated with parasitism by Neoechinorhynchus sp. The digestive tube of P. brachypomus consists of three macroscopically distinct portions: short, rectilinear and elastic-walled ooesophagus, J-shaped siphon stomach and a long intestine with rectilinear and curved portions, defined by patterns of villi as foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Histological and histochemical differences were observed in the mucosal layers of the different digestive tube regions, such as intense production of neutral and acidic mucous substances in the pseudostratified mucosal epithelium of the oesophagus; positive periodic acid Schiff reagent (PAS)reactions at the apex of the columnar epithelial cells of the stomach and increased intensity of histochemical reactions in the hindgut region. Neoechinorhynchus sp. was present in 85.7% of specimens examined, with a mean intensity of 7.4 ± 6.2 (±) and abundance of 6.33. Good health of the fish indicated by high relative condition factor values ( Kn ) and occurrence of only mild to moderate alteration in the mucosal layer indicated that Neoechinorhynchus sp. exhibits low pathogenicity towards P. brachypomus hosts in farming environments, with low levels of infection., (© 2019 The Fisheries Society of the British Isles.)

The histopathology and ultrastructure of the intestine of mullets, Liza ramada and Liza saliens, from Comacchio lagoons (northern Italy) naturally infected with myxozoans and helminths were investigated and described. Sixty-two (80.5%) of 77 mullets harboured one or more of the following parasites species: Myxobolus mugchelo (Myxozoa), Neoechinorhynchus agilis (Acanthocephala), Haplosplanchnus pachysomus and Dicrogaster contractus (Digenea). Co-occurrence of helminths with myxozoans was common. The main damage caused by digeneans was destruction of the mucosal epithelium of the villi, necrosis and degeneration of intestinal epithelial cells. More severe intestinal damage was caused by acanthocephalans which reach the submucosa layer with their proboscis. At the site of helminths infection, several mast cells (MCs), rodlet cells (RCs), mucous cells and few neutrophils and macrophages were observed in the epithelium. RCs and mucous cells exhibited discharge activity in close vicinity to the worm's tegument. M. mugchelo conspicuous plasmodia were encysted mainly in muscle and submucosa layers of the intestine. Indeed, spores of M. mugchelo were documented within the epithelial cells of host intestine and in proximity to MCs. Degranulation of the MCs near the myxozoans was very frequent., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Only 2 major mast cell (MC) subtypes are commonly recognized in the mouse: the large connective tissue mast cells (CTMCs) and the mucosal mast cells (MMCs). Interepithelial mucosal inflammatory cells, most commonly identified as globule leukocytes (GLs), represent a third MC subtype in mice, which we term interepithelial mucosal mast cells (ieMMCs). This term clearly distinguishes ieMMCs from lamina proprial MMCs (lpMMCs) while clearly communicating their common MC lineage. Both lpMMCs and ieMMCs are rare in normal mouse intestinal mucosa, but increased numbers of ieMMCs are seen as part of type 2 immune responses to intestinal helminth infections and in food allergies. Interestingly, we found that increased ieMMCs were consistently associated with decreased mucosal inflammation and damage, suggesting that they might have a role in controlling helminth-induced immunopathology. We also found that ieMMC hyperplasia can develop in the absence of helminth infections, for example, in Treg-deficient mice, Arf null mice, some nude mice, and certain graft-vs-host responses. Since tuft cell hyperplasia plays a critical role in type 2 immune responses to intestinal helminths, we looked for (but did not find) any direct relationship between ieMMC and tuft cell numbers in the intestinal mucosa. Much remains to be learned about the differing functions of ieMMCs and lpMMCs in the intestinal mucosa, but an essential step in deciphering their roles in mucosal immune responses will be to apply immunohistochemistry methods to consistently and accurately identify them in tissue sections.

Cavisoma magnum (Southwell, 1927) Van Cleave, 1931 was originally described from a sea bass, Serranus sp. and spotted surgeonfish, Ctenochaetus strigosus (Perciformes) off Sri Lanka before its more recent redescription from milkfish in the Philippines in 1995. These reports were based on only light infections of their host fishes. Of the few flathead grey mullets, Mugil cephalus (Mugilidae), that we examined in the Arabian Gulf, one fish was infected with 1,450 worms. One milkfish, Chanos chanos (Chanidae), from the same location in the Arabian Gulf, was also heavily infected with specimens of C. magnum. The descriptions of this unique large worm are revised and for the first time, we provide SEM images, new systematic observations, metal analysis of hooks showing extremely high levels of sulfur, and histopathology in the mullet intestinal tissue. Adjustments and corrections of previous descriptive accounts are made. The histopathology studies show extensive damage to the host intestinal tissue including epithelial necrosis, hemorrhaging and worm encapsulation. There is an extensive amount of host connective tissue surrounding the worm. Results of x-ray analysis displayed high levels of sulfur in proboscis hooks, especially at the tips and edges of these attachment structures., (© O.M. Amin et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2018.)

The study describes the morphological changes associated with parasitism by the intestinal acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus buttnerae in tambaqui juveniles Colossoma macropomum farmed in an excavated nursery, in Manaus (Amazon) in September 2013. After fish biometrics, analysis of macroscopic changes in morphology and counting of parasites, bowel fragments were fixed and submitted to histological and histochemical processing. All fish analyzed had acanthocephalans in the intestine; intestinal loops were milky white in color, with the presence of nodules with heavy parasitism. The changes in tissues that form the intestine varied according to the arrangement of the parasites: either free in the intestinal lumen or fixed by the proboscis on the organ wall. In the first case, the changes found were flaking, abrasion, compression, hypertrophy of goblet cells and disappearance of the villi on the mucosa, leukocytic cell infiltration in the submucosa, and muscle layer thickening. In the second case, in addition to these, other changes were observed as metaplasia in muscle tissue with its replacement by a loose connective tissue with severe leukocytic infiltration, edema in blood vessels, and necrotic foci. The histochemical analysis revealed that positive Alcian Blue mucosal cells (pH 2.5) were more expressive in parasitized intestines than in intestines not parasitized by N. buttnerae.

This study was undertaken to assess the damage caused by Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli to Catostomus commersoni (white sucker). Three specimens of C. commersoni were collected during early September 2014 via gill net from Canadarago Lake (Otsego County, New York), then dissected and examined for intestinal parasites. One C. commersoni , collected from a tributary of Otsego Lake (Otsego County, New York), was used as a control in this study because it was not infected with intestinal helminths. Upon dissection, damage to the fish intestine was macroscopically visible, with the intestine perforated when infected with P. bulbocolli. Intestines observed to be infected with P. bulbocolli were opened with a longitudinal incision and fixed in neutral buffered formalin with the acanthocephalans remaining attached. Histological sections of intestine with P. bulbocolli attached were compared with histological sections of intestine in which no worms were present. Examination of sections revealed full penetration of the intestinal wall and tissue destruction to the mucosa, submucosa, stratum compactum, and circular and longitudinal muscle layers, as well as an extensive host immune response in the form of proliferation of cells at the sites of wounds. While these results were consistent with previous histopathological studies on this host and parasite species, the occurrence of pockets of hyaline degeneration in the muscularis reported here is a new finding for this host-parasite system, and it appears to be quite rare in the parasitological literature. It is hypothesized that the presence of hyaline degeneration may be related to secretion of trypsinlike proteins from the presoma of the acanthocephalan, a phenomenon suggested previously for the congener Pomphorhynchus laevis . The host-parasite interaction involving physical damage, secretion of enzymes, and an extensive host immune response may be the cause of the damage, but further research is needed to investigate the nature of these interactions.

Interactions among different species of parasites co-infecting the same host could be synergistic or antagonistic. These interactions may modify both the frequency of infected hosts and their infectiousness, and therefore impact on transmission dynamics. This study determined the infectiousness of Trypanosoma cruzi-seropositive dogs (using xenodiagnosis) and their parasite load (quantified by qPCR), and tested the association between both variables and the presence of concomitant endoparasites. A cross-sectional serosurvey conducted in eight rural villages from Pampa del Indio and neighboring municipalities (northeastern Argentina) detected 32 T. cruzi-seropositive dogs out of 217 individuals examined for infection. Both the infectiousness to the vector Triatoma infestans and parasite load of T. cruzi-seropositive dogs examined were heterogeneous. A statistically significant, nine-fold higher mean infectiousness was registered in T. cruzi-seropositive dogs co-infected with Ancylostoma caninum and a trematode than in T. cruzi-seropositive dogs without these infections. The median parasite load of T. cruzi was also significantly higher in dogs co-infected with these helminths. An opposite trend was observed in T. cruzi-seropositive dogs that were serologically positive to Toxoplasma gondii or Neospora caninum relative to dogs seronegative for these parasites. Using multiple logistic regression analysis with random effects, we found a positive and significant association between the infectiousness of T. cruzi-seropositive dogs and co-infections with A. caninum and a trematode. Our results suggest that co-infections may be a modifier of host infectiousness in dogs naturally infected with T. cruzi., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This study aimed to establish whether sheep flock production losses due to nematode (worm) infections are typically greater in mature sheep selected for anthelmintic treatment at random compared to sheep selected for treatment based on low (poorer) body condition score (BCS). The study also examined the proportion of sheep in flocks that could be left untreated before production losses became evident, and projected worm egg pasture contamination. Sheep were monitored at two experimental sites in Western Australia (Mediterranean climate). Sheep were stratified for BCS, liveweight and faecal worm egg count (WEC) and allocated into treatment groups (treated or untreated), with equal numbers for each. Liveweight, BCS and WEC measurements were taken on 6 occasions at Farm A and 10 occasions at Farm B. Comparisons of sheep production (liveweight and BCS change) and pasture contamination potential (WEC) were conducted by generating "virtual flocks" of varying proportions sheep untreated (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% untreated). For the comparison of the selection mode of sheep for treatment, the untreated sheep were either selected at random, or as the highest BCS animals at the commencement of observations. Univariate general linear models with least square difference post-hoc tests were used to examine differences between flocks for liveweight, BCS and WEC, and regression analysis was used to examine relationships between BCS and WEC, and liveweight and WEC. No difference in body weights was observed between flocks with varying proportions of ewes notionally left untreated at Farm B, and until more than 30% were left untreated at Farm A. There was no difference in BCS between flocks with varying proportions of ewes left untreated at either site. At no point were there differences in cumulative liveweight change or BCS between selection methods (BCS versus random) where the same proportion of sheep in virtual flocks were left untreated, suggesting that effort committed to individual BCS assessment would be of no benefit under these circumstances except for identifying low BCS sheep at risk of falling below critical limits associated with health or welfare risks. No consistent relationship between WEC and BCS or bodyweight was observed, indicating that BCS selection would have no lesser or greater impact on worm pasture contamination compared to random selection. Summer treatments based on a random selection index (with a minimum BCS limit), with up to 30% of adult sheep untreated can be expected to delay the development of anthelmintic resistance, with minimal adverse effect on sheep health or production., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Reasons for Performing Study: Donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) are important working animals, particularly in countries where the majority of the population lives below the poverty line. Gastric ulceration has been shown to be common in British donkeys but donkeys from other parts of the world have not been as extensively researched., Objectives: This study was performed as a preliminary overview of the severity and distribution of gastric lesions in mature donkeys and to document which parasites were present., Study Design: Descriptive study of pathological findings., Methods: Stomachs of 35 mature draught donkeys were examined grossly and histopathology samples taken from 5 regions of the gastric mucosa., Results: Gross examination revealed hyperaemia, oedema, erosions and ulcers in addition to parasitic lesions. Histopathological examination revealed hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, vacuolar degeneration of stratified squamous cells, gastritis, erosions, ulcerations, scarring, hyperactivity of mucus glands, periglandular fibroplasia and parasitic granulomes with infestation by Gasterophilus spp. larvae, Habronema spp. and Draschia megastoma., Conclusions: In donkeys, ulceration of the nonglandular regions of the stomach is more prominent than the glandular regions and parasitic infestations were frequent., (© 2014 EVJ Ltd.)

A series of ultrastructural-based studies were conducted on the interface region in different fish-helminth systems: (a) an intestinal infection of the cestode Monobothrium wageneri in tench, Tinca tinca; (b) an extensive intestinal submucosa and mucosal infection in tench by metacercariae of an unidentified digenean trematode; (c) an intestinal infection in brown trout, Salmo trutta, by the acanthocephalan Dentitruncus truttae; (d) an extraintestinal infection by larvae of the acanthocephalan, Pomphorhynchus laevis in three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus; and (e) an infection in the livers of Eurasian minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus, by larvae of the nematode Raphidascaris acus. Endoparasitic helminths frequently cause inflammation of the digestive tract and associated organs, inducing the recruitment of various immune cells to the site of infection. In each of the fish-helminth systems that were studied, a massive hyperplastic granulocyte response involving mast cells (MCs) and neutrophils in close proximity to the helminths was documented. The current study presents data on the interface region in each fish-helminth system and documents the penetration of mast cells granules within the tegument of P. laevis larvae. No extracellular vesicles containing tegumental secretions from any of the four different taxa of endoparasitic helminths species at the host-parasite interface region were seen., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

An incidental, asymptomatic, focal inflammatory lesion was detected in brain cerebrum of an approximately 6-year-old, female cynomolgus macaque from a chronic toxicology study. No gross lesions were noted at necropsy. Microscopically, the lesion contained a cross-section of larvae approximately 70-80 μm in diameter, a centrally located intestine flanked on either side by large triangular excretory columns, and prominent single lateral cuticular alae. Mixed inflammatory cells of eosinophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes admixed with abundant connective tissue stroma and necrosis surrounded the larvae. Histochemical stains for trichrome revealed significant amount of fibrous connective tissue. The morphology of the larvae was compatible with Baylisascaris spp. Based on the microscopic and histochemical examination, a diagnosis of neural Baylisascaris spp. larva migrans was made., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Allergic diseases, orchestrated by hyperactive CD4(+) Th2 cells, are some of the most common global chronic diseases. Therapeutic intervention relies upon broad-scale corticosteroids with indiscriminate impact. To identify targets in pathogenic Th2 cells, we took a comprehensive approach to identify the microRNA (miRNA) and mRNA transcriptome of highly purified cytokine-expressing Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, and Treg cells both generated in vitro and isolated ex vivo from allergy, infection, and autoimmune disease models. We report here that distinct regulatory miRNA networks operate to regulate Th2 cells in house dust mite-allergic or helminth-infected animals and in vitro Th2 cells, which are distinguishable from other T cells. We validated several miRNA (miR) candidates (miR-15a, miR-20b, miR-146a, miR-155, and miR-200c), which targeted a suite of dynamically regulated genes in Th2 cells. Through in-depth studies using miR-155(-/-) or miR-146a(-/-) T cells, we identified that T-cell-intrinsic miR-155 was required for type-2 immunity, in part through regulation of S1pr1, whereas T-cell-intrinsic miR-146a was required to prevent overt Th1/Th17 skewing. These data identify miR-155, but not miR-146a, as a potential therapeutic target to alleviate Th2-medited inflammation and allergy.

Monitoring parasitic infections in the red fox is essential for obtaining baseline knowledge on the spread of diseases of veterinary and medical importance. In this study, screening for cardiopulmonary and intestinal helminths and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) was done on 118 foxes originating from two distinct localities in Denmark, (Copenhagen) greater area and southern Jutland. Fifteen parasite species were recorded in 116 foxes (98.3%), nine parasitic species are of zoonotic potential. Parasite diversity was greater in foxes of Copenhagen in terms of overall parasite species richness and species richness of all helminth groups individually: trematodes; cestodes; and nematodes. Six parasite species were recovered from foxes of Copenhagen, but not from foxes of Southern Jutland: Echinochasmus perfoliatus; Echinostoma sp.; Pseudamphistomum truncatum; Dipylidium caninum; Angiostrongylus vasorum; and Sarcoptes scabiei, but Toxascaris leonina was only recorded in foxes of southern Jutland. A high prevalence and abundance of A. vasorum in foxes of Copenhagen was observed. The prevalence of four nematode species; Eucoleus (Capillaria) aerophilus, Uncinaria stenocephala, Toxocara canis, and Crenosoma vulpis, in foxes of both localities were comparable and ranging from 22.9% to 89%. The prevalence of Mesocestoides sp. was significantly higher in foxes of Copenhagen. Taenia spp. were detected using morphological and molecular analysis, which revealed the dominance of T. polyacantha in foxes of both localities. Infections with sarcoptic mange were evident only among foxes of Copenhagen (44.9%), which significantly affected the average weight of the infected animals. Further remarks on the zoonotic and veterinary implications of the parasites recovered are given.

Acanthocephalans can be pathogenic helminths of marine birds. Every year during the breeding season, there is variable mortality among prefledged chicks from the largest known Olrog's gull (Larus atlanticus) colony. Mortality has been associated with infection by the acanthocephalan Profilicollis chasmagnathi. Our aim was to study the role of chicks' size as a risk factor for intensity of infection and severe pathology, and to expand upon previous pathological findings reported in acanthocephalan-infected chicks. Size of the chick was associated with intensity of infection and number of intestinal perforations, which increased by 6.9% and 4.1%, respectively, for each millimetre increment in chick size. Infection was associated with inflammatory enteritis and granulomatous peritonitis. Complete intestinal perforations were observed in 85% and 97.3% of the studied chicks in 2005 and 2006, respectively, and they were observed very early during the post-hatching period. Our results show: (1) the presence of advanced pathology associated with acanthocephalan infections in chicks, beginning very early in the post-hatching period; and (2) significant increases in the intensity of infection and the associated pathology as a function of size of chicks, in dead chicks during this period.

Background: Changes in the production of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), a 36 kd protein involved in protein synthesis, within intestinal epithelia can provide an early indication of deviations to normal functioning. Inhibition or stimulation of cell proliferation and PCNA can be determined through immunohistochemical staining of intestinal tissue. Changes in the expression of PCNA act as an early warning system of changes to the gut and this application has not been applied to the fields of aquatic parasitology and fish health. The current study set out to determine whether a population of wild brown trout, Salmo trutta trutta (L.) harbouring an infection of the acanthocephalan Dentitruncus truttae Sinzar, 1955 collected from Lake Piediluco in Central Italy also effected changes in the expression of PCNA., Methods: A total of 29 brown trout were investigated, 19 of which (i.e. 65.5%) were found to harbour acanthocephalans (5-320 worms fish-1). Histological sections of both uninfected and infected intestinal material were immunostained for PCNA., Results: The expression of PCNA was observed in the epithelial cells in the intestinal crypts and within the mast cells and fibroblasts in the submucosa layer which is consistent with its role in cell proliferation and DNA synthesis. The number of PCNA-positive cells in both the intestinal epithelium and the submucosa layer in regions close to the point of parasite attachment were significantly higher than the number observed in uninfected individuals and in infected individuals in zones at least 0.7 cm from the point of parasite attachment (ANOVA, p < 0.05)., Conclusions: An infection of the acanthocephalan D. truttae within the intestinal tract of S. t. trutta effected a significant increase in the number of PCNA positive cells (mast cells and fibroblasts) at the site of parasite attachment when compared to the number of positive cells found in uninfected conspecifics and in tissue zones away from the point of parasite attachment.

Cooperia spp. have become the most prevalent parasites in United States cow/calf operations as observed in the USDA NAHMS (National Animal Health Monitoring System) Beef Cow/Calf survey in 2008. This is at least in part due to the widespread use of macrocyclic lactones that have recently been shown to have a reduced activity against these parasites. The effects of Cooperia spp. on cattle productivity are largely unknown. This study was conducted to assess their effect upon cattle housed under conditions found in American feedlots. Two hundred yearling calves (average weight 460 lb/209 kg) were acquired from northwestern Arkansas and northeastern Oklahoma and were vaccinated and dewormed upon arrival at the feedlot. Animals were comingled and preconditioned for approximately one month, and were fed a standard growing ration throughout the study. Calves were randomly divided into two groups (n=80, infected and control) and each group was further divided into two replicate pens (n=40). Calves from the two infected pens were orally inoculated with a gavage of 1 × 10(5) and 0.825 × 10(5) infective larvae of a recent isolate of Cooperia punctata on day 0 and 14, respectively, with the two control pens receiving a similar volume of tap water. Data collected included biweekly fecal egg counts, daily individual feed consumption and weight gain over the 60-day test period. The presence of C. punctata (>99% of recovered worms) was confirmed by necropsy and recovery from the small intestine on days 35 and 60 post infection (PI) in a subset of animals. Egg counts were positive by day 14 PI and remained at numbers similar to values seen in field studies. The control group gained weight 7.5% more rapidly (p=0.02) than infected animals (3.24 lb/1.47 kg per day vs. 3.0 lb/1.36 kg per day, respectively). The Cooperia-infected calves also consumed 1.5 lb (0.68 kg) less dry feed per day than the control animals (p=0.02). These data suggest that C. punctata has a deleterious effect on both appetite and nutrient uptake or utilization. At necropsy (days 35 and 60), the draining mesenteric lymph nodes of infected animals were increased in size and the small intestinal mucosa was thickened and covered with a thick layer of mucus in the infected animals. The most prominent histological changes in the Cooperia- infected animals included a moderate increase in the number of intraepithelial lymphocytes and globule leukocytes, as well as aggregates of eosinophils within the lower lamina propria. The only significant difference was an increase in the goblet cell density at day 60. Anthelmintic sensitivity/resistance of the Cooperia isolate used was determined by treatment of one pen of infected calves with a macrocyclic lactone and the other pen with a benzimidazole at the completion of the study. The macrocyclic lactone treatment (n=40) did not remove the parasites (FECRT=8.8%), while treatment with a benzimidazole was very effective (FECRT=98.1%). This study demonstrated that C. punctata has a significant effect on cattle productivity, both reduced weight gain and decreased feed intake compared to controls., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Micromorphology and ultrastructure of capsule forming around acanthocephalan Corynosoma strumosum in uncommon paratenic hosts-lizards Lacerta agilis and Lacerta viridis-have been studied. Experimental infestation of the lizards by acanthocephalans obtained from naturally infested sea fishes showed that only small amount of parasites occurred in the intestine of the host was able to migrate into body cavity and to be encapsulated. Micromorphology of capsules of different ages from different species of lizards and micromorphology and ultrastructure of capsules at the age of 1.5 and 10 days appeared to be similar. In the capsule's structure cells of inflammatory rank were prevailing: mononuclear and multinuclear macrophages, eosinophils, and basophils. Fibroblasts were not numerous and were located only in the outer part of a capsule; exocellular collagen fibers were absent. Inflammatory character of capsule confirms the idea that lizards are unsuitable paratenic hosts for corynosomes.

Information regarding parasitic fauna of cetaceans from Costa Rica is provided for the first time. A total of 25 stranded dolphins and whales were examined between 2001 and 2009, including striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) (n=19), pantropical spotted dolphin (S. attenuata) (n=2), spinner dolphin (S. longirostris) (n=1), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) (n=1), dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) (n=1) and Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) (n=1). Pathological findings associated with the parasites are also presented. In the most representative dolphin species, S. coeruleoalba, the prevalence of parasites was 89.5%; moreover, all examined specimens of S. attenuata, S. longirostris, T. truncatus and Z. cavirostris presented parasites. No parasites were recovered from K. sima. Fourteen helminth taxa were identified, including six species of cestodes (Strobilocephalus triangularis, Tetrabothrius forsteri, Trigonocotyle sp., Phyllobothrium delphini, Monorygma grimaldi, Tetraphyllidea gen. sp. plerocercoid), four digeneans (Nasitrema globicephalae, Brachycladium palliatum, B. pacificum and Oschmarinella albamarina) and four nematodes (Anisakis spp., Halocercus lagenorhynchi, Halocercus sp. and Crassicauda anthonyi). A commensal crustacean, Xenobalanus globicipitis, was also identified. All identified parasites representing new geographic records for the Pacific coast of Central America and new host records are presented. Parasitological information is valuable for conservation of cetaceans in Pacific coast of Costa Rica., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The question of how helminths may alter the course of concurrent malaria infection has attracted much interest in recent years. In particular, it has been suggested that by creating an anti-inflammatory immune environment, helminth co-infection may dampen both protective and immunopathological responses to malaria parasites, thus altering malaria infection dynamics and disease severity. Both synergistic and antagonistic interactions are reported in the literature, and the causes of variation among studies are not well understood. Here, meta-analysis of 42 mouse co-infection experiments was used to address how helminths influence malaria parasite replication and host mortality, and explore the factors explaining variation in findings. Most notably, this analysis revealed contrasting effects of helminth co-infection in lethal and resolving malaria models. Whilst co-infection exacerbated mortality and increased peak parasitaemia in ordinarily resolving malaria infections (Plasmodium chabaudi and Plasmodium yoelii), effects among lethal malaria infections (Plasmodium berghei) tended to be in the opposite direction with no change in parasitaemia. In the subset of experiments on cerebral malaria models (P. berghei ANKA strain in a susceptible host), helminth co-infection significantly delayed death. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that depending on the existing balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses mounted against malaria parasites in a given host, immune responses elicited by helminth co-infection may either promote or inhibit malarial disease. However, despite such broad patterns, a prominent feature of this dataset was great heterogeneity in effects across studies. A key future challenge therefore lies in explaining the biological causes of this variation, including a more thorough exploration of non-immunological mechanisms of helminth-malaria interaction., (Copyright © 2011 Australian Society for Parasitology Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The results described the structure of Longicollum pagrosomi and histopathological characters of the intestine of the red sea bream, Pagrus major, infected with acanthocephalans, using the light and electron microscopes. Among the six samples of P. major, L. pagrosomi was identified in the posterior intestine of five fish samples. Adult L. pagrosomi (total length, 8-27 mm) is divided into the presoma (proboscis, anterior neck, and posterior neck) and metasoma (trunk). The proboscis had vertically arranged hooks (40 μm in length), with ten hooks per row, and the septum was observed between the posterior neck and trunk. The tegument thickness of the proboscis was approximately 15 μm, and it was composed of thin, circular muscle fibers. The outer fibrous membrane was approximately 1 μm, and the connective tissue layer was approximately 35 μm in thickness in the anterior neck. The tegument of the posterior neck enclosed the cephalic ganglion and had longitudinal and vertical muscle fibers, and the tegument thickness was approximately 45 μm. The tegument of the body, which was approximately 1 mm in thickness, was composed primarily of muscle and collagen fibers, and the structure of the tegument was different, depending on the body region. The acanthocephalans had ovaries and oval-shaped eggs with an eggshell (77.5 × 17.1 μm), floating within the body cavity of the trunk. In the infected posterior intestine of P. major, the presoma and the anterior part of the metasoma of L. pagrosomi passed through the intestinal wall and infected the intestinal tissue, perforating the loose connective tissue. In the inflammatory connective tissue, collagen and muscle fibers were fragmented and revealed partial necrosis. Lipid drops and eosinophilic granular cells aggregated in the connective tissue of the tissue capsule. In the vicinity of the acanthocephalan, the mucosal epithelia contained hypertrophied nuclei, and the epithelial layer was collapsed. In an extreme case, the mucosal fold was degenerated because of pressure from the acanthocephalan.

Immunopathological and ultrastructural studies were conducted on the intestine of barbel Barbus barbus and sheatfish Silurus glanis that were naturally infected with the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis. Enteric helminths often cause inflammation of the digestive tract, inducing the recruitment of different types of immune cells at the site of infection. The results of our study clearly demonstrated that mast cells (MC) were the dominant immune cells which occur at the site of inflammation in both hosts. MC were associated with fibroblasts and were found in close proximity to, and inside, the capillaries of the intestine, thus, migration of mast cells via the bloodstream was suggested. Significant degranulation of MC was present. Immunohistochemical staining revealed met-enkephalin and serotonin (5-HT) in intestinal MC of both uninfected and infected barbel and the absence of the antimicrobial peptides piscidin 3 and piscidin 4 in both species. Data are discussed with respect to host immune response to an intestinal helminth and compared with other host-parasite systems.

Morphology of capsules surrounding acanthocephalan Corynosoma strumosum in paratenic hosts (sea fishes of three species from the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk) was studied. A thick layer of glycocalyx is formed on the surface of acanthocephalan's tegument in smelts Osmerus mordax dentex and Hypomesus olidus; the surrounding capsule is formed by fibroblasts and collagen fibers and do not include inflammatory cells. Besides fibroblasts, capsule of the sole Limanda aspera consists also of macrophages, granulocytes, "dark" cells, and once of erythrocytes that indicate obvious inflammatory response of the host's organism to invasion; glycocalyx on the surface of acanthocephalans from the sole is weakly developed. The obtained results allow considering the smelts as the most suitable paratenic hosts and the yellow-finned sole as unsuitable paratenic host for the studied acanthocephalans.

A 6-year retrospective study (2000-2005) of animals slaughtered at the Zango abattoir in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria was carried out to determine disease conditions encountered in slaughtered animals. Records kept at the abattoir were analysed. A total of 69,307 cattle, 3,820 goats and 1,763 sheep were slaughtered for the period under study. Of the 69,307 cattle slaughtered for the period, 22,459 (32.41%) were males and 46,848 (67.59%) were females, while 1,763 sheep were slaughtered comprising of 506 (28.70%) males and 1,257 (71.30%) females, and 3,820 goats made up of 1,212 (31.73%) males and 2,608 (68.27%) were females. The major disease and/or pathological conditions were helminthosis (fascioliasis, haemonchosis and paramphistomosis) 16.20%, Streptothricosis 4.15%, Pericarditis 2.20%, liver cirrhosis 2.08%, abscesses 1.04%, pneumonia 0.14%, nephritis 0.05% and Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, Tuberculosis and Nocardiosis 0.01% each. Out of the 15,075 infected organs, 13,314 (88.38%) were partially salvaged while 1,751 (11.6%) whole organs were condemned. A total of 1,239 pregnant cows, 221 pregnant ewes and 637 pregnant does were slaughtered, representing a foetal wastage of 2.65% for cattle, 17.58% for sheep and 24.43% for goats. The result of this study apart from serving as an indicator of field disease condition also demonstrates cases of serious losses in production due to slaughter of pregnant animals especially for sheep and goats.

A survey of gill parasites was conducted in 164 Cyprinion macrostomum (Cyprinidae) collected from the Tigris River at Tikreet city, Salah Al-Deen province, in central Iraq, in 2009-2010. The monogenean Paradiplozoon amurensis Akhmerov, 1974 (Diplozoidae) was observed in the gills of 26.2% of these fishes with a mean intensity of 2.3. This is the first report of P amurensis in Iraq. A description and morphometrics of P amurensis specimens are presented.

Helminth infestation was identified at post mortem examination in 110/116 (95%) raptors belonging to six species in Southern Italy. Pathological changes associated with helminths were observed in 81/110 (74%) of birds. Lesions in the respiratory system were associated with the nematode Serratospiculum tendo only in Falco peregrinus. Lesions in the digestive tract in a range of species of raptors were associated with nematodes (Cheilospirura falconis, Dispharynx falconis, Dispharynx mathewossianae, Physaloptera spp., Procyrnea spp., Procyrnea leptoptera, Synhimantus spp., Synhimantus laticeps, Eucoleus dispar, Porrocaecum spp. and Porrocaecum angusticolle), acanthocephalans (Centrorhynchus buteonis and Centrorhynchus globocaudatus), digeneans (Neodiplostomum spp., Neodiplostomum perlatum, Parastrigea intermedia and Strigea falconis) and a single cestode (Cladotaenia spp.)., (Copyright © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A 4-year longitudinal epidemiological study was carried out to evaluate the effect of infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and three intestinal helminth species on the health of golden and golden-headed lion tamarins. We evaluated health using analysis of blood counts, serum proteins, electrophoretograms, electrocardiograms and a health ranking based on physiological parameters. Among the helminths, Trichostrongylidae was demonstrated as the most pathogenic, followed by Prosthenorchis sp.; concomitant infection by Spiruridae may exacerbate the negative effects of the other two helminths. T. cruzi infection was not highly detrimental to the health of the study animals and was correlated with increased resilience to helminths. Tamarins younger than 1-year of age or older than 4-years had lower health condition. Golden-headed lion tamarins were in lower health condition because of higher parasitic prevalence. Our data suggest that when parasite community pathogenicity and prevalence are high, natural selection will allow survival only of lion tamarins in the best health condition., (Copyright 2010. Published by Elsevier India Pvt Ltd.)

The bladderworm Pearsonema (syn Capillaria) plica affects domestic dogs and wild carnivores worldwide. A high prevalence in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) has been reported in many European countries. P. plica inhabits the lower urinary tract and is considered to be of low pathogenic significance in dogs mostly causing asymptomatic infections. However, a higher level of pathogenicity has been reported in foxes. A severe cystitis associated with numerous bladderworms was found in a captive arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) originating from the endangered Fennoscandian arctic fox population. To our knowledge this is the first description of P. plica infection in an arctic fox.

Turbellarian black spot disease is described in a bluespine unicornfish Naso unicornis (Perciformes, Acanthuridae) collected from the wild off Nouméa, New Caledonia, South Pacific. Each cyst contained a whitish worm, 2 to 4 mm in length, which was able to swim freely in seawater. Cyst walls consisted of fibrous tissue with a scattering of melanocytes. Worms had 2 eyespots at the anterior end, a pharynx at the posterior end and a largely undeveloped reproductive system. They were identified as Piscinquilinus sp. (= Ichthyophaga sp.), a genostomatid turbellarian. The disease spread within 2 wk from a single infected fish to 3 other unicornfish in the same tank, in spite of copper sulphate and diluted seawater treatment; however, other fish from several families kept in the same tank were not infected, suggesting specificity of these parasites. Praziquantel injections into the infected fish eliminated the infection. Other cases of turbellarian infections are reported from 7 fish species off New Caledonia; prevalence is very low (0.3%).

Immunopathological and ultrastructural studies were carried out on the gut of 30 specimens of powan Coregonus lavaretus (L.) from Lake Piediluco, Italy. The digestive tracts of 10 (33.3%) of the powan were found to harbour an acanthocephalan Dentitruncus truttae (Sinzar 1955). The numerous trunk spines of D. truttae reduced the number of mucosal folds near the parasite site of infection. The acanthocephalan induced hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the intestinal mucous cells and many worms were surrounded with an adherent mucous gel. Near the site of acanthocephalan attachment, the number of mucous cells was significantly higher (P<0.01) in comparison to those found in uninfected intestines. Rodlet cells (RCs) were present in the epithelial layer in both infected and uninfected fish, with no significant difference in the numbers observed (P>0.05). In infected intestine, mast cells were more abundant than in uninfected gut (P<0.01). Migration of the mast cells and their intense degranulation at the site of infection were suggested. Immunohistochemical tests applied to sections of intestinal tissue of both infected and uninfected powan revealed that the parasitized C. lavaretus had a larger number of mast cells positive for met-enkephalin and serotonin antisera.

1. Within a community, different host species often exhibit broad variation in sensitivity to infection and disease. Because such differences can influence the strength and outcome of community interactions, it is essential to understand differential disease patterns and identify the mechanisms responsible. 2. In North American wetlands, amphibian species often exhibit extraordinary differences in the frequency of limb malformations induced by the digenetic trematode, Ribeiroia ondatrae. By coupling field studies with parasite exposure experiments, we evaluated whether such patterns were due to differences in (i) parasite encounter rate, (ii) infection establishment, or (iii) parasite persistence within hosts. 3. Field results underscored the broad variation in malformations and infection between host species; while nearly 60% (n = 618) of emerging American toads exhibited severe limb deformities such as bony triangles, skin webbings and missing limbs, fewer than 4% (n = 251) of Eastern gray treefrogs from the same pond were abnormal. Despite similarities in the phenology and larval development period of these species, they differed sharply in Ribeiroia infection. On average, toads supported 75x more metacercariae than did metamorphic treefrogs. 4. Experimental exposures of larval toads and treefrogs to a realistic range of Ribeiroia cercariae revealed strong differences in the sensitivity of these species to infection; exposed toads suffered elevated mortality (up to 95%), delayed metamorphosis, and severe limb malformations consistent with field observations. Treefrogs, in contrast, exhibited limited mortality and no malformations, regardless of exposure level. Ribeiroia cercariae were substantially less successful in locating and infecting Hyla versicolor larvae. 5. Our results indicate that the observed differences in infection and malformations owe to a lower ability of Ribeiroia cercariae to both find and establish within larval treefrogs, possibly stemming from a heightened immune response to infection. Because Ribeiroia is a highly pathogenic parasite with negative effects on larval and metamorphic amphibian survival, variation in infection resistance among species could have important implications for understanding patterns of species co-occurrence, competition, and community diversity.

Brown trout, Salmo trutta L., were infected with the acanthocephalan Dentitruncus truttae with the most affected areas being the anterior (near the pyloric caeca) and middle intestine. The parasite attached with a proboscis which usually penetrated the mucosa, lamina propria, stratum compactum, stratum granulosum and, sometimes, the muscularis layer. Around the parasite's body was an area of inflammatory tissue. At the point of attachment the lamina propria was thickened and the stratum compactum, stratum granulosum and muscularis layer were disrupted by proboscis penetration. Rodlet cells were more numerous in infected fish (P<0.01), and were found in the epithelial layer away from the worm. Infected intestines had larger numbers of mast cells (P<0.01), often in close proximity to, and inside, the blood capillaries and associated with fibroblasts of the muscularis layer and the stratum granulosum. Their migration toward the site of infection was suggested. Intense degranulation of mast cells was encountered in all intestinal layers especially near the parasite's body. Immunohistochemical tests were conducted on sections of intestinal tissue of uninfected and infected fish revealing the presence of met-enkephalin and serotonin (5-HT) in immuno-related cells of the intestine wall. Infected trout had larger numbers of elements positive to met-enkephalin and serotonin antisera. These data provided evidence for the role of the immune system of brown trout in the modulation of the inflammatory response to D. truttae. Results are discussed with respect to host immune response to an intestinal helminth.

The American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is an aquatic, carnivorous member of the family Ranidae that is used extensively in physiology education programs and in various physiology, toxicology, sensorineural, and genetics research. Eleven bullfrogs purchased from a vendor distributing wild-caught frogs for use in a physiology research protocol were emaciated but otherwise showed no apparent clinical signs of illness. Necropsies performed on selected emaciated frogs indicated heavy infestation with multiple species of endoparasites. Identified helminths included Gorgodera amplicava, Haematolechus breviplexus, Clinostomum spp, Contracaecum spp, Cosmocercoides dukae, and Eustrongyloides spp. Grossly, parasitized bullfrogs showed encysted trematode larvae within skeletal muscle, nematode impaction of the intestinal tract, and lack of coelemic fat stores. Histopathologic lesions were restricted primarily to the gastrointestinal tract and consisted of parasitic granulomas associated with Contracaecum spp. The parasitic lesions may have been associated with the poor body condition of the bullfrogs. Food crickets maintained in-house were negative for parasite larvae or ova. Heavy parasitism of wild-caught bullfrogs may confound research protocols and markedly impair animal health. We encourage researchers to purchase laboratory-bred and -reared bullfrogs and to routinely monitor the parasite status of colony frogs.

Background: Intestinal mucus production by hyperplasic goblet cells is a striking pathological feature of many parasitic helminth infections and is related to intestinal protection and worm expulsion. Induction of goblet cell hyperplasia is associated with TH2 immune responses, which in helminth infections are controlled primarily by IL-13, and also IL-4. In the study presented here we examine the goblet cell hyperplasic response to three experimental parasitic helminth infections; namely Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, Syphacia obvelata and Schistosoma mansoni., Results: As expected N. brasiliensis infection induced a strong goblet cell hyperplasia dependent on IL-4/IL-13/IL-4Ralpha expression. In contrast, and despite previously published transiently elevated IL-4/IL-13 levels, S. obvelata infections did not increase goblet cell hyperplasia in the colon. Furthermore, induction of goblet cell hyperplasia in response to S. mansoni eggs traversing the intestine was equivalent between BALB/c, IL-4/IL-13-/- and IL-4Ralpha-/- mice., Conclusion: Together these data demonstrate that intestinal goblet cell hyperplasia can be independent of TH2 immune responses associated with parasitic helminth infections.

The mortality of juvenile European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L.), in the spring of the last 5 years in the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea has been attributed to heavy infections of the gill monogenean Diplectanum aequans (Wagener 1857) Diesing 1858. The histopathological examination of 38 sets of gills from hosts measuring 16.46 +/- 0.26 cm in total length (mean+/-S.E.) and weighing 45.98 +/- 2.37 g (mean+/-S.E.) were conducted using light and transmission electron microscopy. Twenty-eight (73.6%) D. labrax specimens were infected (34.61 +/- 4.42, mean intensity+/-S.E.; 5-100, range) with the majority of D. aequans attaching to the median and apical portions of the primary gill filaments. The sites of attachment were marked by the common presence of haemorrhages and a white mucoid exudate. In histological sections, the opisthaptors of the parasites were observed to penetrate deeply, lying in close proximity to the basal membrane of primary lamella where they induced a hyperplastic response. Disruption and fusion of the secondary lamellae were common in all infected specimens with several individuals also exhibiting a marked erosion and inflammation of the epithelium of the primary and secondary lamellae. In infected fish, cellular changes in the epithelium underlying the bodies of worms were noted typified by an elevation in the number of mucous and rodlet cells and a reduction in the number of chloride cells.

Background: The aim of this study was to determine a parasitic species composition, prevalence and intensity of infection in selected parrots., Material and Methods: The studies were carried out on faecal samples of budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus (n = 36), cockatiels Nymphicus hollandicus (n = 21), grey parrots Psittacus erithacus (n = 18), eastern rosella Platycercus eximius (n = 10) and senegal parrots Poicephalus senegalus (n = 10) using the Willis-Schlaff and McMaster's methods., Results: Protozoans (Isosporidae and Eimeriidae) and nematodes (Ascarididae, Capillaridae and Heterakidae) were detected in the tested samples. Coccidian oocysts were detected in all examined parrots. Isospora and Eimeria oocysts were found in 52.9% Melopsittacus undulatus, 60% Poicephalus senegalus and 66.7% Psittacus erithacus. Mean number of oocysts per gram of feces (OPG) was high: from about 270 to 1500 depending on both parasite and host species. Three species of parrots were infected with the nematodes (Nymphicus hollandicus and Poicephalus senegalus were free from this infection), but only Ascaridia platycerci was present in these hosts, with the highest prevalence (20%) and highest mean number of eggs per gram of feces (EPG = 1242) in Platycercus eximinus. Heterakis gallinarum was observed only in Psittacus erithacus; 16.6% individuals were infected, and EPG was 212. The highest intensity of infection with nematodes of Ascarididae and Capillaridae was in Platycercus eximius. EPG in this species of parrots was 1242 and 2480, respectively. The obtained results show that introduction of parasitological prophylaxis programs is necessary, especially in the larger birds' farmings and zoological shops.

A study of 37 by-caught harbour porpoises from Icelandic and Norwegian waters showed that most were in good or moderate nutritional condition and none was severely emaciated. Mild infection with lungworms (Halocercus invaginatus, Pseudalius inflexus, Torynurus convolutus) was found in 84% of the Icelandic and 91% of the Norwegian animals, usually associated with bronchopneumonia which was rarely severe. Most (91%) of the animals had parasites in the stomach and intestine (Anisakis simplex, Contracaecum osculatum, Pholeter gastrophilus), and Campula oblonga was present in the liver and pancreas of 88 and 21%, respectively. Oesophagitis, gastritis, cholangitis, pericholangitis, pancreatitis and lymphadenitis were almost exclusively associated with parasitic infection and usually mild. Bacterial isolates were obtained from 50 to 55% of the animals but were not considered to be clinically significant. There was no indication of morbillivirus infection. Icelandic and Norwegian animals showed a thicker blubber layer and a lower incidence of severe lesions, especially in the respiratory tract, as compared with reports of by-caught animals from the Baltic Sea.

We assessed the effect of two pathogens (myxoma virus and Eimeria stiedae) and five macroparasites (gastrointestinal helminth species) of the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) upon total host body mass and abdominal fat level. Additionally, we assessed the effects of these organisms on the number of foetuses in adult females during the peak breeding period. Both mass of abdominal fat and total body mass of the rabbit were negatively associated with myxoma virus infection and increasing helminth species richness. Total body mass was also negatively associated with the protozoan parasite E. steidae. No relationship was found between any of the parasites/pathogens and the number of foetuses in adult females, although only relatively small sample sizes were available for this section of the analysis. Increasing host body mass was positively associated with number of foetuses and we propose that mass reduction caused by the pathogen and parasite species could also have the consequence of reducing foetal number.

The study was aimed at identifying pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine releasing potential of Brugia malayi adult worm fractions and their role in filarial infection and pathogenesis. THP-1 cells were incubated with soluble somatic Brugia malayi adult worm extract (BmAS) and its Sephadex G-200 fractions BmAFI, BmAFII and BmAFIII and the effect of the fractions on parasitological, immunological and lymph node parameters was assessed in Mastomys coucha. BmAFII stimulated the pro-inflammatory TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 release; IL-10 release was insignificant. Sensitization of animals with BmAFII and subsequent intraperitoneal implantation of worms enhanced CMI response. BmAFII also increased lymph node weight and cellularity, stimulated lymph node mast cells and eliminated intraperitoneally instilled worms. BmAFI stimulated several folds more release of IL-10, whereas TNF-alpha release was negligible. Sensitization with BmAFI elicited low CMI responses, moderately stimulated mast cells and facilitated survival of implanted adult parasites. Fifty percent of naive animals exposed to BmAFI showed oedematous lymph nodes and increased node weight. NCP-bound molecules corresponding to BmAFI and II showed cytokine-stimulating potential in vitro. It is concluded that BmAFII is protective and stimulates pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas BmAFI facilitates parasite survival and stimulates IL-10.