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This chapter explores how smartphone users understand and navigate digital privacy toward commercial players in a mobile Internet context. The purpose is to gain insight on the interplay between privacy attitudes, knowledge, and actions when connections between individuals and companies are mediated, persistent, and extensive. Such connections have proliferated due to the rapid spread of smartphones among consumers. The authors develop a framework, the privacy awareness grid, to map the relationship between privacy concern and privacy literacy. Then, they present survey results from 2017, based on a total of 3,200 young smartphone users from Norway, Serbia, Malaysia, and Pakistan. They find that the share of privacy-concerned users is high and surprisingly similar across the four surveyed countries, while the share of privacy-literate users varies from 51% in Norway to 1% in Pakistan. Being privacy-literate correlates with privacy concerns, and in particular, few respondents are both privacy-literate and unconcerned. The more privacy-concerned and privacy-literate respondents also take more privacy-protection actions.

We study consumer inertia in the mobile subscription market, focusing on the decision of whether to switch to a competing provider. To identify the extent of inertia, we exploit price changes faced by 270,000 consumers of a large telecom provider. We document that the propensity to switch provider after the price change increases among consumers whose costs decrease with the new prices. Furthermore, we find that the increase is largest right after consumers are informed of the upcoming change—during the two months prior to the tariff change—as opposed to when the price change is implemented. From these findings, we infer what we call a poking effect; the information of an upcoming price change causes consumers to engage in searches for alternative offers, leading to increased switching.We supplement the analysis with a survey and find indications that the poking effect is due to consumer inattention. To separate the effect on attention from the reaction to the actual price change, we estimate a model of consumer choice with limited attention. We find that when consumers are poked, it increases the share of consumers becoming attentive to competing offers. This leads many consumers to switch providers earlier than they would otherwise, explaining why they leave even though their terms with their current company improve.

Achieving inclusive value chain development is a challenging task due to the complex and dynamic nature of interconnected value chains and their social, economic, and ecological dimensions. While many policies and intervention options exist to upgrade value chains, there are fewer methods that can be used to understand and quantify the multidimensional impacts that value chain policies and interventions may have throughout the value chain. This paper addresses this methodological gap by employing a system dynamics (SD) modeling approach. SD models allow us to model and quantify the processes and relationships inherent in the value chain through simulations, serving as a policy laboratory for the empirical assessment of intervention options. An SD model of the Matiguás dairy value chain in Nicaragua was developed and tested through a participatory modeling process. Our research tested and evaluated the short-, medium-, and long-term impacts of specific interventions and policies in the Matiguás dairy value chain with the goal of strengthening the competitiveness and inclusion of small- and medium-scale producers. These interventions centered on improving the feeding system, which was identified by stakeholders as the critical constraint to competitiveness. The policy analysis reveals that both improved pastures and increased use of concentrates raise producer milk productivity by 5% and 11%, respectively in the long run, but are also expensive strategies for smallholder producers, leading to a reduction in profits relative to the baseline by 1% and 3%, respectively. Consequently, policymakers should identify strategies that help to reduce concentrate costs and support producers with investments in improved pasture, while also promoting training in pasture management skills. Indeed, in the long-run, model results reveal that investment and training in pasture management results in a 30% and 35% increase in milk production during the wet and dry season, respectively. Simulation results further highlighted that intensifying the feeding system to improve cow milk yields is mainly profitable in the long term, and thus requires a longer-term perspective by policymakers. The model provides a deeper understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of the Matiguás dairy value chain and the interactions between markets, coordination aspects, biophysical phenomena, and income. The system dynamics approach to value chain analysis further addresses a major analytical shortcoming in value chain analysis and provides decision makers with an improved platform for planning and policy formulation. An empirical evaluation of policy options for inclusive dairy value chain development in Nicaragua: A system dynamics approach

Individuals’ choices are the foundation in economics; an individual makes the choice that maximizes her utility. Doing nothing or maintaining a previous decision is also a choice—the status quo choice (Samuelson and Zeckhauser, 1988). To explain the mechanisms resulting in status quo behavior, research point at frictions such as search costs and switching costs. In addition, a long list of cognitive biases which result in the status quo choice. Status quo behavior is observed in settings that are relevant for this thesis. Looking first to the political realm, sitting politicians have an increased probability of remaining in their position, that is, they have an incumbency advantage. Evidence of the incumbency advantage in candidate-centered systems are extensive. This thesis shows that incumbency advantages in a party-centered system, stem from the incumbent candidates’ improved list position in the next election. Hence, the parties execute status quo behavior in their nomination process. Moving to the realm of consumer choice, numerous purchase decisions are either very similar or pure replications of past purchase decisions. However, research has shown evidence of consumer inertia implying that consumers replicate past choices, even when close substitutes are less expensive. The last two chapters of this thesis discuss consumer inertia in switching of mobile subscription. First, I discuss switching of subscriptions within a telecom operator, and second, I discuss consumers’ decision to leave their telecom operator. Consumers’ switching behavior following unanticipated price changes, indicates that the market is influenced by consumer inertia.

We study consumer inertia in the mobile subscription market, focusing on the decision of whether to switch to a competing provider. To identify the extent of inertia, we exploit price changes faced by 270,000 consumers of a large telecom provider. We document that the propensity to switch provider after the price change increases among consumers whose costs decrease with the new prices. Furthermore, we find that the increase is largest right after consumers are informed of the upcoming change—during the two months prior to the tariff change—as opposed to when the price change is implemented. From these findings, we infer what we call a poking effect; the information of an upcoming price change causes consumers to engage in searches for alternative offers, leading to increased switching.We supplement the analysis with a survey and find indications that the poking effect is due to consumer inattention. To separate the effect on attention from the reaction to the actual price change, we estimate a model of consumer choice with limited attention. We find that when consumers are poked, it increases the share of consumers becoming attentive to competing offers. This leads many consumers to switch providers earlier than they would otherwise, explaining why they leave even though their terms with their current company improve.

Incumbents tend to have a solid electoral advantage in candidate-centered electoral settings. Do similar incumbency effects exist in more party-centered environments? We estimate incumbency effects in an open-list proportional representation system, exploiting that seats are first allocated across parties, and then to candidates within party lists. Using data from Norwegian local elections 2003–2015, we document that a candidate that barely wins a seat in the local council has about a 9 percentage points (43%) higher probability of being elected in the next election compared to a candidate that just misses out on a seat on the same party list. We find no evidence that voters contribute to this personal incumbency advantage. Rather, it seems as if party elites are instrumental in securing the electoral success of their party affiliates. We show that incumbents and non-incumbents run again in the subsequent election at about equal rates, but that incumbents tend to advance in the party hierarchy and obtain safer ballot positions in future elections, which is what ultimately leads to electoral success.

The use of system dynamics tools can add valuable insights when identifying and evaluating priorities for pro-poor value chain upgrading. However, to better understand the complex systems in agricultural value chains and to develop useful models, a participatory modelling process is important. This article highlights the group model building process of the dairy value chain in Matiguás, Nicaragua, one of a few examples of participatory model building in developing countries. The results confirm several benefits with participatory system dynamics modelling, including team learning, a greater understanding of the value of modelling, and a tool for decision-making and priority setting. Participatory system dynamics modelling for dairy value chain development in Nicaragua

In Tanzania, goat’s milk has a high market value due to its desirable nutritional profile and cultural recognition that it is beneficial to human health. A joint initiative between Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) and the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) that introduced dairy goats to Tanzania has resulted in approximately 400,000 goats in the region to this day, providing households and communities with milk and various other animal byproducts. In areas such as the highlands of Mgeta in the Morogoro region, where there was previously no production of milk, dairy goats have achieved an average milk production of 1.4 L of milk per animal per day. This led to a rise in milk consumption from 0 L per household per day in 1988 to 1.6 L per household per day in 2012. Although the joint initiative between SUA and the NMBU was successful in diversifying the diets and improving the livelihoods of the poor, farm group efforts to distribute surplus milk to larger and more distant markets has remained a challenge. Suboptimum feeding practices and low education levels in milk handling and entrepreneurship may explain this lack of progress. In order to expand milk distribution beyond the local market, the involvement of an established dairy company is required. This paper will look at collaborations between farmers, private-milk-processing enterprises such as Shambani Graduates Ltd. (SGL) and a research institution (SUA) to discuss the value of milk in human nutrition and the feasibility of a pro-poor value chain for climate-smart goat’s milk processing and dairy goat maintenance.

Objective Much of the knowledge about the optimal way to perform chest compressions (CC) in newborn infants is derived from animal studies. The objective of this review was to identify studies of CC in newborn term animal models and review the evidence. We also provide an overview of the different models. Methods Data sources: MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL, until September 29th 2014. Study eligibility criteria and interventions: term newborn animal models where CC was performed. Results Based on 419 retrieved studies from MEDLINE and 502 from EMBASE, 28 studies were included. No additional studies were identified in CINAHL. Most of the studies were performed in pigs after perinatal transition without long-term follow-up. The models differed widely in methodological aspects, which limits the possibility to compare and synthesize findings. Studies uncommonly reported the method for randomization and allocation concealment, and a limited number were blinded. Only the evidence in favour of the two-thumb encircling hands technique for performing CC, a CC to ventilation ratio of 3:1; and that air can be used for ventilation during CC; was supported by more than one study. Conclusions Animal studies should be performed and reported with the same rigor as in human randomized trials. Good transitional and survival models are needed to further increase the strength of the evidence derived from animal studies of newborn chest compressions.

Hensikten med denne oppgaven var å undersøke hvordan utviklingen av e- handel påvirker Nilson Group, og hvordan de må tilpasse strategi og konsept for å være konkurransedyktige i et raskt skiftende marked. Vi var spesielt interessert i å finne ut hvilke konkurransefortrinn bedriften har og komme frem til hvilke tiltak som kan skape en forbedring av selskapets markedsandeler i Norden. I første del av oppgaven kommer en kort presentasjon av Nilson Groups markedsområder og historie. Videre i del to blir problemstillingen for oppgaven presentert. I del tre tar vi for oss det metodiske fundamentet som ligger til grunn for informasjonsinnsamlingen. Studien ble gjennomført som en kvalitativ oppgave, der dybdeintervju med 3 høytstående ansatte innen Nilson Group, 1 butikksjef innen en ekstern bedrift og 1 forbruker var hovedverktøyet for å undersøke eventuelle forskjeller. Vi ville få respondentene til å komme med egne meninger og synspunkt om aktuelle temaer, for å kunne diskutere problemstillingen vår og komme med eventuelle tiltak. Det ble i alt gjort 5 individuelle dybdeintervju, og disse laget grunnlaget for diskusjonskapittelet. I del fire presenteres det teoretiske grunnlaget for oppgaven. Vi har tatt med den teorien vi mener er viktig for å kunne løse oppgaven på en tilfredsstillende måte. I del fem analyseres og drøftes intervjuene opp mot hverandre i henhold til problemstillingen for å reflektere over respondentenes meninger og synspunkt om utviklingen av e- handel. Her dro vi også inn VRIO og SWOT analyse for å få en oversikt over bedriftens ressurser (styrker og svakheter), hvilke som skaper vedvarende konkurransefortrinn og hvilke som eventuelt må forbedres. I del seks settes disse funnene opp mot det teoretiske grunnlaget som foreligger, slik at potensielle forbedringsområder kan avdekkes. Funnene vi fant ut i drøftingen legges frem i konklusjonen med konkrete anbefalinger og råd til hvordan Nilson Group kan tilpasse strategier og konsept for å være konkurransedyktig i markedet og i utviklingen av e-handel.

I dette studiet undersøker vi hvilke faktorer som påvirker forbrukeres evne og villighet til å ta i bruk selvbetjeningssystemer. Vi undersøker også endring i kjøpsatferd som følge av Covid- 19-pandemien, og bruker resultater fra disse for å konkludere i vår problemstilling. Strukturen i oppgaven følger vår egenutviklede modell, basert på teori fra flere fagartikler og litteratur. Analysen og resultatene baserer seg på svar fra 802 respondenter fordelt på forskjellige aldersgrupper fra hele landet. Metoden vi tar i bruk er et bekvemmelighetsutvalg gjennom en nettbasert spørreundersøkelse, distribuert gjennom ulike sosiale medier. Fra disse kartlegger vi viktigheten av flere attributter, samt deres egne formeninger om endring i kjøpsatferden. Vi har også innhentet sekundærdata fra Meny AS, for å underbygge påstandene i studiet. Ved bruk av illustrasjoner som den overordnede modellen og enkle diagrammer, gir vi leseren gode forutsetninger for å forstå innholdet i både analysene og studiet i sin helhet. Gjennom grundige analyser ved hjelp av Excel og SPSS, vurderer vi økt mottakelighet for selvbetjening etter pandemien. Dette baserer vi på funn i analysene, der vi ser tydelige korrelasjoner mellom funksjoner ved selvbetjeningssystemet, samt ulike variabler tilknyttet personlige faktorer. Resultatene vi avdekker er interessante og åpner for videre forskning og utviklingsmuligheter hos Meny AS.

Denne studien har som hensikt å undersøke hvordan prosjekter blir gjennomført i henhold til prosjektteori og smidig metodikk. Dette har blitt undersøkt gjennom følgende problemstilling: ● “Hvordan arbeider Digitaliseringsdirektoratet i utviklingsprosjekter i henhold til smidig metodikk og Prosjektveiviseren? Og hvilke gevinster har fellesløsningene gitt?” I forkant av prosjektet hadde vi utarbeidet en hypotese hvor vi antok at mange organisasjoner ønsker å være/kaller seg smidig uten å nødvendigvis følge alle punktene i teorien om smidig metodikk. Underveis i forskningen ble vi nysgjerrig på hvordan Direktoratet arbeidet opp mot Prosjektveiviseren som har forankring i prosjektteori, derfor ble det naturlig å inkludere dette i vår problemstilling. Kapittel 2 omhandler bruk av kvalitativ forskningsmetode, hvor vi benyttet oss av en abduktiv tilnærming for oppgavebesvarelsen. Dette vil si at vi analyserte datamaterialet samtidig som vi undersøkte relevant teori og litteratur fra pensumbøker og eksisterende forskning. Det ble også benyttet andre kilder som gjorde at vi ble nødt til å stille oss kildekritiske til funnene, samt at vi her har tatt stilling til validitet og reliabilitet. Teorigrunnlaget i kapittel 3 har hovedvekt på prosjektteori og prosjektmetodikk. Innenfor prosjektteori har vi satt et ekstra fokus på gevinstrealisering, i tillegg til suksesskriterier, styring og organisering. Vi tar utgangspunkt i tradisjonell prosjektteori og etter støtte fra flere forskere ser vi på hvordan deler av dette har endret seg for å arbeide i et moderne selskap. Avslutningsvis i dette kapittelet presenterer vi vannfall og smidig prosjektmetodikk. I Kapittel 4 beskriver vi de funnene vi har gjort, som har bakgrunn fra offentlig kilder og interne dokumenter fra Direktoratet. Først presenteres Prosjektveiviseren i sin helhet, deretter har vi satt søkelys på Maskinporten - som er en av fellesløsningene. Her har vi sett på bakgrunn og mål for utviklingen samt måten de arbeidet på. Informasjonen som vi innhentet ble støttet opp av to ulike fokusintervjuer, intervjuene er beskrevet i kapittel 2. Avslutningsvis legges det frem gevinster fra et utvalg andre fellesløsninger. Til slutt har vi i kapittel 5 sammenlignet teori og praksis. Det er først gjort en analyse av Prosjektveiviseren hvor vi setter denne opp mot teorigrunnlaget vårt, her viser det seg at Veiviseren blir brukt som et nyttig verktøy de gangene den overhode blir benyttet, men de færreste hadde et forhold til denne. Deretter ser vi på arbeidet i Maskinporten opp mot Prosjektveiviseren og teorigrunnlaget, et av funnene vi har gjort viser at Direktoratet benytter seg av det som anses som nyttig fra ulike smidige metoder, da hovedsakelig Scrum og Kanban. Videre ser vi at de ulike fellesløsningene skaper både prissatte og ikke-prissatte samfunnsøkonomiske gevinster. Dette har gitt grunnlag for drøfting og konklusjon som besvarer og bekrefter den nevnte problemstilling og hypoteser.