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In this paper, we review articles in the research field of international and comparative human resource management (HRM), published in Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources since the journal’s inception in the 1960s. Our review is based on 155 articles, including 43 conceptual, opinion, editorial, and review articles, and 112 empirical studies, and examines the trends over decades by examining four major areas: 1) characteristics of the articles; 2) research topics within the international and comparative HRM; 3) theoretical frameworks; 4) country contexts; and 5) methodologies. While there have been many valuable contributions, new challenges have emerged. Based on our analysis, we provide suggestions for future research on international and comparative HRM. We call for scholars to draw attention to context and to theoretical and methodological innovation, in order to develop research with high impact and practical relevance.

Increasingly, organizations find that they need to be more flexible and innovative in responding to unexpected and emergent human resource (HR) issues affecting their members, such as outbreaks of infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19) forcing massive transition to remote work, changes in industry landscape altering learning and development, and politically-driven global mobility regulations restricting people flow. Organizations have long utilized informal structures known as “skunk works”, flexible groups empowered to work rapidly with minimal management constraints, to address technological challenges. In this article, we aim to better understand when and how organizations similarly employ skunk works-like structures to help them deal with rapidly evolving HR-related challenges. We discuss three examples of organizations that have utilized this approach. We then integrate the learning insights from these examples to develop a framework supported by a set of research questions to guide future scholarship into HR skunk works. We emphasize that there are both benefits and drawbacks of innovative organizational structures for addressing HR challenges alongside regular, established ways of working., Highlights • Organizations have long utilized informal structures known as skunk works to address technological challenges affecting products/services. • In a similar manner, skunk works teams may be assembled to generate solutions related to people management. • The COVID-19 pandemic is a stark example for how swiftly organizations need to respond to rapidly evolving HR-related challenges. • Three examples of skunk works teams illustrate unconventional routes to solutions for specific HR issues affecting organizational members. • We develop a framework for future research around the antecedents, processes and characteristics, moderators and outcomes of HR skunk works.

Drawing on leader–member exchange and conservation of resources theories, we investigate the role of the quality of leader–member exchange in the relationships between supervisors’ and subordinates’ cynicism and dedication. Survey responses were collected from 104 supervisors and 971 subordinates nested within 104 work-units in five organizations in Finland. A multilevel structural equation model and cross-level mediation were utilized to test the hypotheses. The results show that the quality of leader–member exchange mediates the association between supervisor cynicism and subordinate cynicism and dedication. However, supervisor dedication does not appear to have an influence on leader–member exchange or subordinate cynicism and dedication. The findings related to the influence of supervisor cynicism on the cynicism and dedication of subordinates point toward the value of management interventions that directly address supervisor psychological well-being. Practical interventions might include training for supervisors and employees to enhance relationship-building skills, team-building activities, and leadership development. This empirical study is novel in its focus on how a supervisor’s cynicism and dedication may affect their relationships at work and how this, in turn, may have an effect on their subordinates.

We show the relevance of extant international business (IB) research, and more specifically work on international human resources management (IHRM), to address COVID-19 pandemic challenges. Decision-makers in multinational enterprises have undertaken various types of actions to alleviate the impacts of the pandemic. In most cases these actions relate in some way to managing distance and to rethinking boundaries, whether at the macro- or firm-levels. Managing distance and rethinking boundaries have been the primary focus of much IB research since the IB field was established as a legitimate area of academic inquiry. The pandemic has led to increased cross-border distance problems (e.g., as the result of travel bans and reduced international mobility), and often also to new intra-firm distancing challenges imposed upon previously co-located employees. Prior IHRM research has highlighted the difficulties presented by distance, in terms of employee selection, training, support, health and safety, as well as leadership and virtual collaboration. Much of this thinking is applicable to solve pandemic-related distance challenges. The present, extreme cases of requisite physical distancing need not imply equivalent increases in psychological distance, and also offer firms some insight into the unanticipated benefits of a virtual workforce – a type of workforce that, quite possibly, will influence the ‘new normal’ of the post-COVID world. Extant IHRM research does offer actionable insight for today, but outstanding knowledge gaps remain. Looking ahead, we offer three domains for future IHRM research: managing under uncertainty, facilitating international and even global work, and redefining organizational performance.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to address gaps in the knowledge about human resource (HR) professional involvement in strategic decision-making in China compared with that in Australia. Design/methodology/approach First, the authors compare the strategic involvement of Chinese and Australian HR professionals. Second, based on the upper echelon theory, the authors compare the impact of chief executive officer (CEO) and top management team (TMT) between both countries on HR involvement in strategic decision-making. Data were collected from matched pairs of HR and TMT executives in China (n = 168) and in Australia (n = 102). Findings Results indicate a difference, despite of no statistical significance, in HR involvement in strategic decision-making between Chinese and Australian samples. TMT behavioural integration was positively related to HR involvement in strategic decision-making in a collectivistic culture (i.e. in China), but not in an individualistic culture (i.e. in Australia). However, CEO support for HRM was positively related to HR involvement in strategic decision-making in Australia, whereas it is not related in China. Originality/value The paper conducts a comparative study and practical, and research implications are discussed at the end.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to apply the concept of power imbalance to explain workplace and demographic characteristics associated with bullying by different perpetrators in the healthcare sector. Design/methodology/approach All 69,927 members of the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Federation (Victoria) were invited to participate in an online survey in 2014; 4,891 responses were received (7 per cent response rate). Participants were asked about their exposure to workplace bullying (WPB) by different perpetrators. The questionnaire addressed demographic characteristics and perceptions of workplace characteristics (workplace type, leading indicators of occupational health and safety (OHS), prioritisation of OHS, supervisor support for safety and bureaucracy). Analysis involved descriptive statistics and regression analyses. Findings The study found that the exposure of nurses and health workers to bullying is relatively high (with 42 per cent of respondents experiencing WPB in the past 12 months) and there are multiple perpetrators of bullying. The research revealed several demographic predictors associated with the different types of perpetrators. Downward and horizontal bullying were the most prevalent forms. Workplace characteristics were more important predictors of bullying by different perpetrators than were demographic characteristics. Research limitations/implications There are limitations to the study due to a low response rate and the cross-sectional survey. Practical implications Practical implications of this study emphasise the importance of focussed human resource strategies to prevent bullying. Originality/value The key contribution of this research is to draw from theoretical explanations of power to inform understanding of the differences between perpetrators of bullying. The study highlights the workplace characteristics that influence bullying.

For most leaders, their first exposure to formal leader development training occurs in adolescence, through school, extra-curricular activities, or youth leader development programs. As with many adolescent experiences, the processes and challenges of leader development are different for girls than they are for boys. With increasing calls to address gender inequity worldwide, adolescent girls' leader development has become an important cross-disciplinary research topic. Though the literature on developing adolescent girls has grown substantially, it is fragmented across disciplines, with a lack of integration and theoretical framing hindering our advancement in knowledge. Therefore, there is a critical need for a comprehensive review article to guide scholars to build an integrated knowledge of how leader development occurs for adolescent girls. We searched for literature relevant to leader and leadership development designed for adolescent girls and reviewed a total of 108 academic papers (2000–2019). We identify and critique five themes in this literature that hold important implications for the leader development of adolescent girls. To advance knowledge, we offer social cognitive theory as a theoretical frame to understand adolescent girls' leader development and provide guidance on future research. Finally, we offer insights on how the processes and practices of adolescent girls' leader development could inform adult leader development.

This research was supported under Australian Research Council's Linkage Projects funding scheme (project number LP110200526).

Purpose To investigate the relative contributions of workplace type, occupational violence and aggression (OVA) strategies and interventions along with perceptions of the occupational health and safety (OHS) environment on the likelihood of receiving postincident support following the experience of OVA. Design We used a cross-sectional study design with an online survey to collect data from employees in nursing and midwifery in Victoria, Australia. Methods Survey data collected from 3,072 members of the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Federation (Victorian branch) were analyzed using logistic regression. Findings Of the 3,072 respondents who had experienced OVA in the preceding 12 months, 1,287 (42%) reported that they had received postincident support. Hierarchical logistic regression revealed that the OHS environment was the dominant factor that predicted the likelihood of workers receiving postincident support. Working in a positive OHS environment characterized by higher levels of leading indicators of OHS, prioritization of OHS, supervisor support for safety, and team psychological safety was the stronger predictor of postincident support. Being employed in a workplace that offered training in the management and prevention of OVA also increased the likelihood of receiving postincident support. Conclusions While training in the management and prevention of OVA contributed to the likelihood of receiving postincident support, a greater emphasis on the OHS environment was more important in predicting the likelihood that workers received support. Clinical relevance This study identifies workplace practices that facilitate the provision of postincident support for healthcare workers. Facilitating effective postincident support could improve outcomes for workers, their patients and workplaces, and society in general.

In this special issue we aim to advance the theoretical, conceptual and empirical knowledge about the relationship between global teams and human resource management in international organizations. We argue that although the prevalence of global teams in international organizations is rapidly rising, simultaneously affecting the management of firms on global, regional and local levels, the response of firms and scholars alike to such changes has been slower, especially in the area of IHRM. The HR function in organizations could play a vital role in understanding, managing and leveraging the benefits of global teams to ensure that they contribute positively to the performance of firms, organizational units, and people. We demonstrate that there is still a disconnect in this respect and we highlight several areas in which the increasing use of global teams may challenge our conventional understanding of IHRM issues, and at the same time offer solutions for improvement in international organizations. The selected articles in this special issue provide both theoretical and practitioner implications by highlighting the need to explore the relationship between global teams and IHRM more generally and fully, as well as the need for HR practitioners and IHRM scholars to focus more on the ‘human’ and less on the ‘resources’ aspect. We trust that readers of this issue will agree that the articles all offer novel insights into key issues that open new avenues for further research in this nascent yet promising area.

Organizations cannot function without healthy and safe employees, a stark reality evidenced by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019-20: when lives are threatened, everything else becomes secondary. Few would question that there is a critical need to build HR-relevant knowledge of how to manage the health and safety of employees. Despite the duty of care carried by organizations and the fact that those who work across national borders are a particularly vulnerable group, there is surprisingly little discussion about their health and safety. We examined the literature relevant to the health and safety of international employees across four research disciplines. Our review of 180 papers found a growing yet fragmented field offering important insights with implications for HRM. Our paper is intended as both a review and a call for future advancement. We bring together disparate but related research streams in order to understand what is known about occupational health and safety related to working across national borders and to outline a roadmap for future research and practice.

Safety climate is central to scholarship in workplace safety, yet there is a lack of clarity and consensus in the way safety climate has been conceptualized and measured. Since Zohar’s (1980) pivotal work on safety climate, there has been a proliferation of scales to measure this construct. This is the first review and critical evaluation of safety climate measures. We searched several databases from January 1980 to December 2019 for studies relating to safety climate with the aim of capturing all publicly available generic measures of safety climate. Our search identified 1665 peer reviewed journal articles. After removing duplicates and applying our exclusion criteria, we reviewed 44 articles containing 49 measures of safety climate. The results of this review identified deficiencies and inconsistencies in the way safety climate has been conceptualized and measured. Our review found that the scale validation process has been skewed towards scale development rather than scale evaluation and, despite the inherently multilevel nature of safety climate, the psychometric evaluation of safety climate as a multilevel construct has rarely been examined. Our findings hold important implications and we offer guidance for future research. Clarity, consensus and rigor in measurement are imperative for the advancement of safety climate research and critical to any understanding of the impact of safety climate on safety outcomes.

Turnover intention and knowledge sharing of local employees in multinational enterprise (MNE) subsidiary workgroups have received relatively little attention in IHRM research, yet are centr...

The last decade has witnessed the extraordinary ascent of emerging market multinational enterprises (EMNEs), which has changed or is changing the global landscape. The rise of EMNEs is no longer a ...

Purpose To examine the relative impact of work-related stressors and the personal resource of mindfulness on employees' mental and physical health. Design A cross-sectional survey design with nursing and healthcare workers in Victoria, Australia. Methods Data were collected from 702 respondents. Mean scores for work-related stressors and employee mental and physical health were compared with population norms. We used hierarchical linear regressions to examine the relative impact of demographics, work-related stressors, and mindfulness on employee mental and physical health. Findings Employees in this sample reported higher levels of work-related stress and poorer mental health compared to available norms, while their levels of physical health were within the normal range. Regression analyses showed that work-related stressors were important predictors of employee mental health, but mindfulness was the stronger predictor. There was a slightly stronger relationship between employee physical health and work-related stress compared to mindfulness. Furthermore, being younger and employed in a non-nursing role were associated with better physical health. Clinical relevance Encouraging mindfulness as a health behavior practice among nurses and other healthcare workers could improve employee well-being and potentially enable them to more effectively fulfill the requirements of their demanding roles.

The global pandemic of 2020-21 has enabled an examination of the conditions under which working from home is preferred. We examine whether work-life conflict (both work interfering with family and family interfering with work) and need fulfillment (autonomy, relatedness, competence) can be used to predict employees’ preference for working from home in the future, post-pandemic. With a sample of 944 employees working from home for the first time, this study found that work-life conflict was negatively related and need fulfillment was positively related to employees’ preference for working from home post-pandemic. The experience of having children at home or a partner who was also working from home did not affect employees’ long-term preference for working from home; however, being female did. Women were less likely to want to work from home post-pandemic. The implications for ways to maximize the experience of working from home in the future are discussed.

Occupational violence and aggression (OVA) is an increasing global phenomenon, with healthcare workers being a particularly vulnerable group (Cashmore, Indig, Hampton, Hegney, & Jalaludin, 2012; Opie et al., 2010). While there is no consensus on what constitutes OVA (Victorian Auditor General's Office, 2015), the definition we use is: "any incident where an employee is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances arising out of, or in the course of, their employment" (Department of Health, 2011, p. 8). Healthcare workers play a critical role in community care, but the nature of this community role exposes them to considerable risk of OVA (Victorian Auditor General's Office, 2015). A review by Spector, Zhou, and Che (2014) reported that worldwide 36% of nurses had been exposed to physical violence at work and 66% had been exposed to nonphysical violence. Among the 13 occupations studied by LeBlanc and Kelloway (2002), the second highest risk exposure and second highest violence prevalence rates occurred for nurses; police officers were the only occupational group found to experience higher levels of OVA.OVA is an important area of research in the field of occupational health and safety (OHS), not only because of societal expectations of safety and dignity at work, but also because OVA has been reported to have flow on effects beyond the initial physical or emotional impact of a violent or aggressive incident. Individual responses to exposure to physical violence and verbal aggression include increased absenteeism and turnover and reduced productivity (Schat & Kelloway, 2005). Lanctot and Guay's (2014) systematic review identified several categories of detrimental consequences of OVA, including physical, psychological, emotional, and work functioning, as well as social and financial well-being and diminished patient care. These consequences highlight the direct and indirect costs of OVA to individuals, patients, workplaces, and society in general.Comparisons across world regions undertaken by Spector et al. (2014) showed that the highest rate of exposure to OVA among nurses was in the Anglo region (i.e., Australia, New Zealand, England, Ireland, Scotland, Canada, and United States), where patients were the dominant source of physical violence. Within Australia, several studies have reported high rates of exposure to OVA in the healthcare sector (e.g., Farrell, Shafiei, & Chan, 2014; Roche, Diers, Duffield, & Catling-Paull, 2010) and, consistent with other countries, patients were the main perpetrators of violence towards nurses. However, the prevalence of OVA in the healthcare industry is unclear and requires clarification (Victorian Auditor General's Office, 2015). In response, the first aim of our study is to determine the extent and source of OVA experienced by nursing and caring professionals in the healthcare industry.Along with the call for greater understanding of the extent of the problem, Farrell et al. (2014) emphasized the need to understand the factors that protect staff and reduce risk. Research has focused on the workplace context and has shown that factors such as role overload, work demands or job strain (Magnavita, 2014; Rodwell, Demir, & Flower, 2013), poor staffing levels (Farrell & Shafiei, 2012), lack of leadership (Roche et al., 2010), and lack of social support (Magnavita, 2014) increase the likelihood of OVA.Viewing the OVA research in the context of the broader safety literature and consistent with Clissold, Buttigieg, and De Cieri (2012), we apply Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to understand the context for OVA. The premise of social cognitive theory is that people are considered to be completely driven by neither external stimuli nor internal factors, but rather a combination of the environment, the person, and his or her behavior. Clissold et al. (2012) argued that a triadic framework encompassing the environment, the person, and the behavior could guide research in workplace safety. …

In response to the call for empirical evidence of a connection between leading and lagging indicators of occupational health and safety (OHS), the first aim of the current research is to consider the association between leading and lagging indicators of OHS. Our second aim is to investigate the moderating effect of safety leadership on the association between leading and lagging indicators. Data were collected from 3578 employees nested within 66 workplaces. Multi-level modelling was used to test the two hypotheses. The results confirm an association between leading and lagging indicators of OHS as well as the moderating impact of middle management safety leadership on the direct association. The association between leading and lagging indicators provides OHS practitioners with useful information to substantiate efforts within organisations to move away from a traditional focus on lagging indicators towards a preventative focus on leading indicators. The research also highlights the important role played by middle managers and the value of OHS leadership development and investment at the middle management level.

There is growing interest in advancing knowledge and practice on the use of leading indicators to measure occupational health and safety (OHS) performance in organizations. In response we present psychometric analysis of the Organizational Performance Metric - Monash University (OPM-MU), which is a recently developed measure of leading indicators of OHS with several adaptations made as part of our investigation. Based on a national survey conducted with 3605 employees in 66 workplaces from several major organizations in Australia, we applied classical test (exploratory factor analysis) and item response (Rasch model analysis) theories to conduct a psychometric evaluation of the OPM-MU. RESULTS revealed that the OPM-MU displayed good psychometric properties and evidence for both construct and criterion validity at employee and workplace levels. The OPM-MU could be used as an initial 'flag' of the leading indicators of OHS and has the potential to be a benchmarking tool for workplaces both within and across organizations. This paper represents an important advancement in the field of leading indicators of OHS performance and demonstrates that the OPM-MU is a promising new tool with demonstrated reliability and validity. Language: en

Purpose – Little is known about the attraction, development, and attrition factors that impact on expatriates’ decision making in relation to international assignment opportunities, nor is there clear understanding as to how global mobility outcomes impact on global talent management (GTM). The purpose of this paper is to conceptualize the attraction, development, and attrition of expatriates as a process that is focussed on two core elements of expatriate ROI (eROI) – corporate ROI (cROI) and individual ROI (iROI). Further, the authors adopt an innovative approach by conceptualizing how global mobility is linked to GTM. Design/methodology/approach – Applying psychological contract theory, the authors draw on empirical data from two large studies to compare the perspectives of mobility managers (the cROI inputs) with those of long-term assignees (expatriates; the iROI inputs) to identify how global mobility outcomes can impact on GTM. Findings – By comparing and contrasting corporate and individual perspe...

The purpose of this study is to employ Koeske and Koeske’s stressor-strain-outcome model of stress to examine the extent to which strain, a central component of occupational stress, mediates the relationship between safety climate and safety-related outcomes. The relationship between safety climate, strain and safety outcomes has been relatively under tested where strain is a mediating variable. This study makes a contribution to the literature by examining the dynamics of these relationships. Questionnaires were sent to 1,800 employees of an electricity provider, with a 41.4% response rate. The hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling. Analysis of the hypothesized model indicated that, while safety climate had a significant direct relationship with safety-related behaviors, the model was also partially mediated by the experience of strain. Understanding the relationship between safety climate, strain and safety outcomes is important. Support for the model verifies that safety climate is mediated by strain in terms of safety outcomes. Practical implications include the need to manage safety climate through management attitudes to safety, maintaining high safety standards and communication to reduce ambiguity on safety norms.

The first aim of this study was to test empirically the effect of HR political skill on the relationship between high involvement work practices and organisational performance. A second aim was to test empirically whether an HR executive can use their political skill advantageously within strategic decision-making processes in order to affect organizational performance. Survey responses from 180 HR executives in medium to large employers have been analysed and the results confirm that the political skill of the HR executive strengthens the positive relationship between high involvement work practices and perceived organisational performance, and also strengthens the positive effect of HR involvement in strategic decision-making on organisational performance. The research provides evidence that HR political skill is important both in reinforcing the impact of human resource management (HRM) and the opportunity for HR to be part of strategic decisions.

This conceptual paper examines the role of performance management in the development and maintenance of cultural control in multinational enterprises. A framework is presented showing elements of cultural control and their links with the performance management process, as part of bureaucratic control within multinational enterprises.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence of the country-of-origin effect and how this effect interacts with other factors in shaping multinational corporations� (MNCs�) practices. However, there has been little investigation of different forms of country-of-origin effect, the mechanisms through which this effect occurs, or country-of-origin effect on MNCs from emerging markets. This study explores how country-of-origin effect manifests in Chinese MNCs� preparation for managing host country labor relations, an important area of human resource management (HRM). Based on a study of 21 Chinese MNCs, we argue that country-of-origin effect in relation to Chinese MNCs mainly manifests in two implicit forms, including transfer of management ethos and competitive disadvantage generated from the home base, rather than in the form of direct practice transfer as commonly suggested in the current literature. The major mechanism through which country-of-origin effect plays out is the mind-set of managers, rather than formally established corporate control instruments

Recently there has been growing attention paid by practitioners to the need for effective measurement of the contribution of work-life management initiatives to both financial and nonfinancial performance objectives and to organizational effectiveness overall. We review a range of performance indicators, criteria, and indices that are used in a variety of countries to measure the performance of work-life initiatives. Using insights from research as a theoretical foundation, we present a framework for organizations to use when developing metrics for work-life measurement that comprise the four dimensions of planning and alignment, customization, supportive culture, and demonstrated value. Finally, we offer recommendations for research and practice related to measurement of work-life initiatives to assist scholars, managers, employees, and communities

Given turbulent economic times, the concept of employee resilience is receiving increasing attention in many organisations. This paper brings the discussion of employee resilience into the field of human resource management (HRM). We explore the foundations of resilience in theories of positive psychology and the conservation of resources (COR); we discuss its relevance for HRM and develop a set of testable hypotheses to guide future research. The first key finding of this paper is that the concept of resilience can be developed from strong theoretical foundations. Second, a coherent set of resilience-enhancing HR practices have the potential to contribute to employees’ psychological capital, attitudes and behaviour, and to organisational performance not only in turbulent circumstances but also during periods of relative calm. Given the theoretical framing, formal resilience training should be viewed as a single component of a broader, coherent set of resilience-enhancing HR practices.

While a large body of literature has investigated the content of human resource management (HRM) practices, this research explores the process through which the HRM function impacts on organisational performance. Specifically, the research explores the reasons for the success or failure of HRM initiatives that have been associated with organisational outcomes and classifies the reasons as dimensions of HRM power. Based on 26 interviews conducted in Australia with senior HRM executives, top management team (TMT) executives and two management consultants, we found that, in order to contribute to organisational performance, HRM professionals can effectively utilise three dimensions of power, namely power of resources, power of processes and power of meaning. The findings offer new insights to the relationship between dimensions of HRM power and organisational performance.

In this exploratory study we draw on interviews with 12 expatriate staff, seven of whom are permanent transfers to a Singapore-based subsidiary of a global knowledge-based firm. Using goal congruen...

The aims of the research are to explore evidence of professional human resource management (HRM) role tensions, the factors that affect HRM role tension, and to consider the impact on management perceptions when role tensions exist. Using a qualitative approach, 25 interviews were conducted in Australia with senior HRM personnel, top management team (TMT) executives, and a management consultant. Findings reveal that the failure of the HRM profession to attract people with a business focus increases HRM role tensions. Respondents report that tensions were reduced when aspects of the HRM role were devolved or outsourced, there was an acceptance of a changed psychological contract, and clearer attempts were made to communicate an agreed-upon strategic focus for HRM. HRM role bias led to a reduced willingness among TMT members to respect, and communicate with, HRM professionals. The implications of the negative outcomes of HR role tensions are discussed with reference to the power of the HRM function. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The world is more interconnected than ever before. Traditional organizational forms, traditional leadership roles and traditional ways of managing people need to adapt to changing times. Interconne...

In the context of dramatic changes in China, this paper investigates the role of organisational effectiveness as a mediator in the relationship between the strategic integration of human resource management (HRM) and firm financial performance. Our study is based on the survey responses of 618 managers in state-owned and private (domestic and foreign-invested) enterprises in China. While most studies of the linkage between HRM practices and firm performance in China have measured firm financial performance or used an ad hoc combination of financial and non-financial indicators, we argue for a distinction to be made between non-financial organisational effectiveness and financial performance. As hypothesised, controlling for sector (state-owned vs. private), we find positive relationships between perceived changing business environment and strategic integration of HRM, and between strategic integration of HRM and organisational effectiveness. Our research adds an important conceptual link by showing that o...

Measuring the outcomes of any human resource management activity is critical in terms of the acquisition, allocation, development, and compensation of employees. Although international assignments and expatriation are important components of most large companies' activities, few of those firms have developed sound metrics to evaluate the success of these initiatives. In particular, there is a lack of established procedures for measuring expatriate return on investment (ROI). The experiences of a large international software development company in measuring expatriate ROI are used to illustrate the dangers of over-reliance on common HR measurement techniques. Then, a two-phase approach to constructing an evaluation framework for expatriate ROI is presented. Rather than focusing on that which is easily measurable, it is designed to direct attention toward the desired outcomes and make the mobility manager directly accountable for business results. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

China's significance as a destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) is a major factor in Asia-Pacific economic growth. This paper identifies important yet unexplored matters of human resource management (HRM) in multinational enterprise (MNE) subsidiaries in China. Specifically, the study explores the alignment issues between managers and employees with respect to their knowledge of HR practices, their experience of HR practices, and their perceived effectiveness of HR practices. Both interviews and a survey covering seven MNE subsidiaries operating in China finds a lack of alignment between managers and employees in each instance, for example, in their views of intended and actual HR practices and perceived effectiveness of these practices in the areas of performance assessment, recruitment and selection and career development. The implications of the differences for managers of MNEs operating in China are identified and discussed. The limitations of the study are acknowledged and areas for further study are also suggested.