Search

The gut visceral musculature plays essential roles in not only moving substances through the lumen but also maintaining the function and physiology of the gut. Although the development of the visceral musculature has been studied in multiple model organisms, how it degenerates is poorly understood. Here, we employ the Drosophila midgut as a model to demonstrate that the visceral musculature is disrupted by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as aging, feeding, chemical-induced tissue damage, and oncogenic transformation in the epithelium. Notably, we define four prominent visceral musculature disruption phenotypes, which we refer as ‘sprout’, ‘discontinuity’, ‘furcation’, and ‘crossover’ of the longitudinal muscle. Given that the occurrence of these phenotypes is increased during aging and under various stresses, we propose that these phenotypes can be used as quantitative readouts of deterioration of the visceral musculature. Intriguingly, administration of a tissue-damaging chemical dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced similar visceral musculature disruption phenotypes in zebrafish larvae, indicating that ingestion of a tissue-damaging chemical can disrupt the visceral musculature in a vertebrate as well. Our study provides insights into the deterioration of the gut visceral musculature and lays a groundwork for investigating the underlying mechanisms in Drosophila as well as other animals.

Atrial stretch may contribute to the mechanism of atrial fibrillation (AF) recurrence after atrial fibrillation catheter ablation (AFCA). We tested whether the left atrial (LA) wall stress (LAW-stress[measured]) could be predicted by artificial intelligence (AI) using non-invasive parameters (LAW-stress[AI]) and whether rhythm outcome after AFCA could be predicted by LAW-stress[AI] in an independent cohort. Cohort 1 included 2223 patients, and cohort 2 included 658 patients who underwent AFCA. LAW-stress[measured] was calculated using the Law of Laplace using LA diameter by echocardiography, peak LA pressure measured during procedure, and LA wall thickness measured by customized software (AMBER) using computed tomography. The highest quartile (Q4) LAW-stress[measured] was predicted and validated by AI using non-invasive clinical parameters, including non-paroxysmal type of AF, age, presence of hypertension, diabetes, vascular disease, and heart failure, left ventricular ejection fraction, and the ratio of the peak mitral flow velocity of the early rapid filling to the early diastolic velocity of the mitral annulus (E/Em). We tested the AF/atrial tachycardia recurrence 3 months after the blanking period after AFCA using the LAW-stress[measured] and LAW-stress[AI] in cohort 1 and LAW-stress[AI] in cohort 2. LAW-stress[measured] was independently associated with non-paroxysmal AF (p < 0.001), diabetes (p = 0.012), vascular disease (p = 0.002), body mass index (p < 0.001), E/Em (p < 0.001), and mean LA voltage measured by electrogram voltage mapping (p < 0.001). The best-performing AI model had acceptable prediction power for predicting Q4-LAW-stress[measured] (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve 0.734). During 26.0 (12.0–52.0) months of follow-up, AF recurrence was significantly higher in the Q4-LAW-stress[measured] group [log-rank p = 0.001, hazard ratio 2.43 (1.21–4.90), p = 0.013] and Q4-LAW-stress[AI] group (log-rank p = 0.039) in cohort 1. In cohort 2, the Q4-LAW-stress[AI] group consistently showed worse rhythm outcomes (log-rank p < 0.001). A higher LAW-stress was associated with poorer rhythm outcomes after AFCA. AI was able to predict this complex but useful prognostic parameter using non-invasive parameters with moderate accuracy.

The present study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of a methanol extract of Sargassum horneri (SHM), which contains 6-hydroxy-4,4,7a-trimethyl-5,6,7,7a-tetrahydrobenzofuran-2(4H)-one (HTT) and apo-9′-fucoxanthinone, against ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced cellular damage in human keratinocytes and its underlying mechanism. SHM significantly improved cell viability of UVB-exposed human keratinocytes by reducing the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, SHM inhibited UVB exposure-induced apoptosis by reducing the formation of apoptotic bodies and the populations of the sub-G1 hypodiploid cells and the early apoptotic cells by modulating the expression of the anti- and pro-apoptotic molecules, Bcl-2 and Bax, respectively. Furthermore, SHM inhibited NF-κB p65 activation by inducing the activation of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling. The cytoprotective and antiapoptotic activities of SHM are abolished by the inhibition of HO-1 signaling. In further study, SHM restored the skin dryness and skin barrier disruption in UVB-exposed human keratinocytes. Based to these results, our study suggests that SHM protects the cells against UVB-induced cellular damages through the Nrf2/HO-1/NF-κB p65 signaling pathway and may be potentially useful for the prevention of UVB-induced skin damage.

BackgroundAlthough myocardial thickness is an important variable for therapeutic catheter ablation of cardiac arrhythmias, quantification of wall thickness has been overlooked. We developed a software (AMBER) that measures 3D-myocardial thickness using a cardiac computed tomogram (CT) image, verified its accuracy, and tested its clinical feasibility.MethodsWe generated 3D-thickness maps by calculating wall thickness (WT) from the CT images of 120 patients’ hearts and a 3D-phantom model (PhM). The initial vector field of the Laplace equation was oriented to calculate WT with the field lines derived from the 3D mesh. We demonstrate the robustness of the Laplace WT algorithm by comparing with the real thickness of 3D-PhM, echocardiographically measured left ventricular (LV) WT, and regional left atrial (LA) WT reported from previous studies. We conducted a pilot case of catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation (AF) utilizing real-time LAWT map-guided radiofrequency (RF) energy titration.ResultsAMBER 3D-WT had excellent correlations with the real thickness of the PhM (R = 0.968,p R = 0.656,p = 0.007). AMBER 3D-LAWT (n = 120) showed a relatively good match with 12 previously reported regional LAWT. We successfully conducted pilot AF ablation utilizing AMBER 3D-LAWT map-guided real-time RF energy titration.ConclusionWe developed and verified an AMBER 3D-cardiac thickness map measured by cardiac CT images for LAWT and LVWT, and tested its feasibility for RF energy titration during clinical catheter ablation.

Western medicine was first introduced to Korea by Christian missionaries and then by the Japanese in the late 19th century without its historical, philosophical, cultural, social, political, and economic values being communicated. Specifically, during the Japanese colonial era, only ideologically ‘degenerated’ medicine was taught to Koreans and the main orthodox stream of medicine was inaccessible. Hence, Korean medical education not only focuses on basic and clinical medicine, but also inherited hierarchical discrimination and structural violence. After Korea’s liberation from Japan and the Korean war, the Korean medical education system was predominantly influenced by Americans and the Western medical education system was adopted by Korea beginning in the 1980s. During this time, ethical problems arose in Korean medical society and highlighted a need for medical humanities education to address them. For Korean medical students who are notably lacking humanistic and social culture, medical humanities education should be emphasized in the curriculum. In the Fourth Industrial Revolution, human physicians may only be distinguishable from robot physicians by ethical consciousness; consequentially, the Korean government should invest more of its public funds to develop and establish a medical humanities program in medical colleges. Such an improved medical education system in Korea is expected to foster talented physicians who are also respectable people.

이전 연구를 통해 제주 자생해조류인 감태의 에탄올 추출물인 ECE가 TNF-α/IFN-γ로 염증을 유도한 피부각질형성세포에서 염증성 사이토카인과 케모카인의 발현을 억제함을 확인하였다. 그러나 초기 피부염증성 자극 인자로 알려진 TSLP와의 연관성에 대해서는 보고된 바가 없다. 따라서 이번 연구에서 TSLP의 발현 및 분비에 ECE가 미치는 영향에 대하여 확인하였다. 그 결과, ECE는 TNF-α/IFN-γ의 자극에 의해 증가된 TSLP의 발현과 분비를 억제함으로써 염증성 사이토카인인 IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 및 TNF-α의 발현 또는 분비를 억제하였다. 또한, ECE는 피부각질형성세포에서 분비되어 Th2 세포를 염증 부위로 이동시키는 케모카인인 TARC의 발현을 억제하였다. 뿐만 아니라 아토피성 피부염이 자연유발되는 NC/Nga 동물모델에서 ECE는 아토피성 피부염의 대표적인 증상인 가려움 빈도를 감소시켰다. 이 모든 결과를 종합해보면, ECE는 TSLP를 하향 조절함으로써 피부염증 억제 효능과 가려움을 억제 효능을 가진다고 할 수 있으며, 이 결과는 ECE의 비정상적인 면역반응에 의한 피부염증 개선용 천연 기능성 식품 소재로써 활용이 가능하다는 것을 시사하고 있다.

Gamma ray irradiation causes immune suppression, in which oxidative stress reduces cell viability and damages immune cells. In the present study, we investigated whether Loliolus beka gray meat (LBM), which contains large amounts of taurine, protects against damage of murine splenocytes by oxidative stress. An aqueous extract of LBM (LBMW) was prepared, which contained plentiful levels of taurine. LBMW improved cell viability of gamma ray-irradiated murine splenocytes, an effect that was associated with significant reduction in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also showed that the production of nitric oxide (NO) and ROS in gamma ray-irradiated zebrafish embryos, as well as the death of the embryos, were diminished by LBMW. These data suggest that the consumption of taurine-rich foods, such as LBM, may be used in the protection of cells against oxidative stress.

In this study, we evaluated the protective effects of an aqueous extract from Batillus cornutus meat (BM) against cellular oxidative damage caused by hydrogen peroxide (H

Here, we investigated the hepatoprotective effect of a hot water extract from Loliolus beka gray meat (LBMH) containing plentiful taurine in H

In this study, we investigated the hepatoprotective activity of the water extract derived from Octopus vulgaris meat (OM). First of all, a water extract prepared from OM (OMW) showed the high extraction yield (48.22%) and the highest taurine content (39.84%) in free amino acids. OMW exhibited the high value of reducing power, ABTS and hydrogen peroxide radical scavenging activities in dose-dependent manner. The taurine-rich OMW also led to the reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation with the increased cell survival in H

Blood vessels become less flexible with senescence; arteries narrow and become less flexible, disturbing blood circulation in aging and other vascular diseases. Mechanistically, vascular senescence plays an important role in the pathogenesis of normal aging and age-related vascular diseases. Vascular senescence also causes vascular dysfunction, resulting in damage to the vessel wall. Vascular aging involves the senescence of endothelial cells. Hydrogen peroxide is widely used to achieve oxidative stress-induced premature senescence. Here, we investigated the protective effects of a hot water extract of Loliolus beka meat (LBM) against H

Batillus cornutus (B. cornutus) is one of the gastropoda, which are distributed along the coast of China, Japan and South Korea and northeast area. In this study, we first identified the antioxidant effects of a B. cornutus meat (BM) enzymatic hydrolysate in H

Endothelial dysfunction is a critical factor in the development of diabetes-mediated cardiovascular complications. Free fatty acids (FFA), such as palmitate, which are elevated in diabetes and obesity, have been shown to mediate endothelial dysfunction, perhaps related to oxidative stress and inflammation. Taurine ameliorates endothelial dysfunction induced by diabetes. However, there has been no reports on the effect of Loliolus beka gray meat extracts, which contain large amounts of taurine. Here, we investigated the protective effect of a hot water extract of Loliolus beka gray meat (LBM), on palmitate-induced cell damage in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The LBM extract was found to inhibit palmitate-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage. In addition, the LBM extract reduced the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines in HUVEC. These results suggest that the LBM extract protects against palmitate-induced cytotoxicity in HUVECs. Therefore, potential therapeutic and/or inhibitors of vascular disease may be derived from the LBM extract.

Octopus ocellatus meat (OM) is well known as a plentiful protein source. In this study, we evaluated the hepatoprotective effect of an aqueous extract of OM (OMA) against H

In the present study, we investigated the antioxidant activity of an aqueous extract from Atrina pectinate meat (APW) against H

In this study, we evaluated the protective effects of an aqueous extract from Batillus cornutus meat (BM) against cellular oxidative damage caused by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in human hepatocyte, Chang cells. First, we prepared an aqueous extract of BM meat (BMW) showing the highest taurine content among free amino acid contents. BMW led to high antioxidant activity showing 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, good reducing power and an oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value. Also, BMW improved cell viability that was diminished by H2O2 exposure, as it reduced the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Chang cells. In addition, BMW up-regulated the production of antioxidant enzymes, such as catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD), compared to H2O2-treated Chang cells lacking BMW. Moreover, BMW induced the expressions of nuclear Nrf2 and cytosolic HO-1 in H2O2-treated Chang cells. Interestingly, the treatment of ZnPP, HO-1 inhibitor, abolished the improvement in cell viability and intracellular ROS generation mediated by BMW treatment. In conclusion, this study suggests that BMW protects hepatocytes against H2O2-mediated cellular oxidative damage via up-regulation of the Nrf2/HO-1 signal pathway.

Octopus ocellatus meat (OM) is well known as a plentiful protein source. In this study, we evaluated the hepatoprotective effect of an aqueous extract of OM (OMA) against H2O2-triggered oxidative stress in human hepatocytes. First of all, taurine rich OMA showed a good ORAC value and reducing power and it was similar with that of ascorbic acid, which is known as a strong antioxidant. Also, OMA significantly improved H2O2-decreased cell viability by reducing the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in hepatocytes. Interestingly, the stimulation of H2O2-induced the formations of apoptotic bodies and sub-G1 DNA content, whereas they were inhibited by the treatment with OMA. Furthermore, OMA regulated the protein expression levels of apoptotic molecules, such as Bax and Bcl-2. Taken together, this study suggests that OMA, which contains an abundant amount of taurine, protects hepatocytes from H2O2-triggered oxidative stress and might be a functional food material with hepatoprotective effects.

Here, we investigated the hepatoprotective effect of a hot water extract from Loliolus beka gray meat (LBMH) containing plentiful taurine in H2O2-induced oxidative stress in hepatocytes. LBMH potently scavenged the 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals and exhibited the good reducing power and the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value. Also, LBMH improved the cell viability against H2O2-induced hepatic damage in cultured hepatocytes by reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In addition, LBMH inhibited apoptosis via a reduction in sub-G1 cell population, as well as inhibition of apoptotic body formation from H2O2-induced oxidative damage in hepatocytes. Moreover, LBMH regulated the expression levels of Bax, a pro-apoptotic molecule and Bcl-2, an anti-apoptotic molecule in H2O2-treated hepatocytes. Additionally, pre-treatment with LBMH increased the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), which is a hepatoprotective enzyme, by activating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in H2O2-treated hepatocytes. Taken together, LBMH may be useful as a food ingredient for treatment of liver disease by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signal pathway.

Blood vessels become less flexible with senescence; arteries narrow and become less flexible, disturbing blood circulation in aging and other vascular diseases. Mechanistically, vascular senescence plays an important role in the pathogenesis of normal aging and age-related vascular diseases. Vascular senescence also causes vascular dysfunction, resulting in damage to the vessel wall. Vascular aging involves the senescence of endothelial cells. Hydrogen peroxide is widely used to achieve oxidative stress-induced premature senescence. Here, we investigated the protective effects of a hot water extract of Loliolus beka meat (LBM) against H2O2-exposed HUVECs, a human umbilical vein endothelial cells line. The hot water extract of LBM protected cells against H2O2-induced cytotoxicity while reducing the expression of senescence markers, including β-galactosidase, p53, and p21. In addition, the hot water extract of LBM protected against H2O2-induced DNA damage. These findings suggest that the hot water extract of LBM protects HUVECs from H2O2-induced senescence by preventing cellular damage. LBM serve as a supplement or natural food with benefits against vascular disease.

In the present study, we investigated the antioxidant activity of an aqueous extract from Atrina pectinate meat (APW) against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in a human hepatocyte. The extraction yield of APW was 30.01 ± 0.83% and which contained the highest taurine content among free amino acid contents. APW led to the high antioxidant activity showing 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, good reducing power and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value. Also, the results showed that APW improved the cell viability decreased by H2O2 stimulation as well as the reduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in hepatocytes. Additionally, APW up-regulated the production of antioxidant mechanisms related enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD), compared to the only H2O2-treated hepatocytes. Moreover, APW increased the expressions of nuclear Nrf2 and cytosolic HO-1 in H2O2-treated hepatocytes. Interestingly, the treatment of ZnPP, a HO-1 inhibitor abolished the cell viability and intracellular ROS generation induced by APW treatment. In conclusion, this study suggests that APW protects H2O2 induced oxidative stress via up-regulating of Nrf2/HO-1 signal pathway in hepatocytes.

Endothelial dysfunction is a critical factor in the development of diabetes-mediated cardiovascular complications. Free fatty acids (FFA), such as palmitate, which are elevated in diabetes and obesity, have been shown to mediate endothelial dysfunction, perhaps related to oxidative stress and inflammation. Taurine ameliorates endothelial dysfunction induced by diabetes. However, there has been no reports on the effect of Loliolus beka gray meat extracts, which contain large amounts of taurine. Here, we investigated the protective effect of a hot water extract of Loliolus beka gray meat (LBM), on palmitate-induced cell damage in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The LBM extract was found to inhibit palmitate-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage. In addition, the LBM extract reduced the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines in HUVEC. These results suggest that the LBM extract protects against palmitate-induced cytotoxicity in HUVECs. Therefore, potential therapeutic and/or inhibitors of vascular disease may be derived from the LBM extract.

Batillus cornutus (B. cornutus) is one of the gastropoda, which are distributed along the coast of China, Japan and South Korea and northeast area. In this study, we first identified the antioxidant effects of a B. cornutus meat (BM) enzymatic hydrolysate in H2O2-treated Vero cells. First of all, we prepared an Alcalase hydrolysate from BM (BMA) and revealed a high taurine content. Also, taurine rich BMA dose-dependently increased 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, reducing power and the higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value. In addition, BMA significantly increased the cell viability via the down-regulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, as well as the decreased formation of apoptotic bodies and sub-G1 DNA population in H2O2-treated Vero cells. Furthermore, BMA increased the expression of the anti-apoptotic molecule, Bcl-2, and decreased the expressions of Bax, p53 and cleaved PARP, all of which are pro-apoptotic molecules, in H2O2-treated Vero cells. Based on these results, this study suggests that BMA may be used as a potential protector on damage caused by oxidative stress.

Background Lipolysis using laser is currently widely used for reducing localized fat. A 1064 nm neodynium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser lipolysis was investigated in this study to evaluate its efficacy and safety in the treatment of gynecomastia. Methods Five male patients diagnosed with gynecomastia were enrolled in this study, which was designed as a controlled split-breast trial. One breast of each patient was subjected to laser lipolysis and was then compared with a contralateral breast. Photographs and clinical assessments were obtained before the lipolysis, and at the fourth and eighth weeks thereafter. Computed tomography (CT) scan and ultrasound (US) imaging were used to evaluate the changes in the breasts’ thicknesses. Results The mean chest circumference was found to have been significantly reduced 8 weeks after the laser lipolysis. The clinical outcomes of the laser lipolysis were considered favorable by both the patients and clinicians. The CT and US scans showed that the thicknesses of the treated right breasts reduced more than those of the left breasts were 8 weeks after the laser lipolysis. The side effects (pain, edema, and ecchymosis) were minimal and disappeared shortly after they first manifested. Limitations The limitations of this study are that it employed small treatment groups and short-term follow-up. Conclusion This study demonstrated that gynecomastia can be treated effectively and safely through 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser lipolysis.

© Korean Medical Association This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In order to ensure the rights of medical self-regulation, what precondition should be fulfilled by the Korean Medical Association (KMA) or any other independent medical association or organization? Regulatory authority is defined as an exercise of legal power by the State for the rights and interests of the people. Thus, if Korean physicians seek to regulate themselves, on the one hand, the KMA or any other independent medical association or organization should achieve delegation from the State, and on the other, Korean medical professionalism should fully reflect the State philosophy. This paper aims to examine the origin and precondition of medical self-regulation in French State philosophy and French medical professionalism. For this purpose, the following topics are covered: (1) Who was involved in the establishment of the French State philosophy and what was the role of French physicians? (2) By whom and how was French State philosophy introduced in American State philosophy? (3) What medical ideas and values are included in the Declaration of Human and Civic Rights of 1789? (4) How is French State philosophy emblematized by three key values–freedom, equality, and fraternity–incorporated in French medical professionalism? Dealing with these topics, this paper claims, on the basis of French history and philosophy, that the most important precondition of medical self-regulation is for medical professionalism to sufficiently reflect the State philosophy, and consequently the KMA or any other independent medical association or organization representing Korean physicians should willingly be involved in shaping the Korean State philosophy.

의 역량(competence), 복수 개념의 역량들(competencies, Medicine is the practice that occurs in the context of the society. It requires interaction with individual patients, fellow doctors and other health care professionals, health care officials, public, institution, and the society as a whole. To date, medical practice in Korea has largely been concentrated on applying biomedical knowledge and skill to a patient. We defines ‘social competency’ as ‘competency for medicine as a social institution.’ This survey aims to grasp the current situation of Korean doctors’ perception on social competency, in terms of necessity, satisfaction, learning experience, and possible intervention. Respondents generally recognized the necessity of social competencies but were not satisfied with their demonstration of those competencies. Competencies for ‘understanding on law and institution’ and ‘communication’ were perceived highly necessary. General satisfaction and each satisfaction rate on individual competencies were all below ‘neutral,’ showing their dissatisfaction. Especially, doctors assess their fellow doctors’ competencies for ‘understanding on law and institution’ and ‘understanding on human being and society’ at the lowest level. The mismatch between perceived necessity and satisfaction shows the legitimate ground for educational intervention. The proportions of respondents who have learned on each domain of social competency were all below 70%. Learning experience on self-management and leadership was the least. Among possible remedy for low social competency, respondents perceived ‘improvement on national health insurance’ and ‘improvement on resident training program’ as the most urgently needed. The data from this preliminary survey can be utilized for educational and institutional intervention in the future.

을 수행해야 한다. 의사에게 사회적 역할이 필수적인 이 Doctor’s task cannot be limited to medical practice and research. As a citizen of society, and above all as a professional, doctors should not evade their social responsibilities. This idea was systematically developed and widely diffused throughout Europe by Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis (1757-1808). He was not only a doctor, but also a philosopher and a politician who lived at the time of the French Revolution. His philosophy on the nature of medicine and the social role of the doctor is conceptualized in his idea of medical anthropology (science de l’homme, anthropologie). In order to understand why the social role of the doctor was particularly emphasized in and around France, Cabanis’ medical anthropology should be analyzed in depth. His medical anthropology is composed of three major domains: physiology, ethics, and analysis of ideologies. The following ideas of his medical anthropology can be identified in the current articles of the French code of medical deontology. 1) Health and disease being a social problem, a social solution should be sought (1.6, 1.7, 1.10, 2.37, 2.44, 2.50); 2) Medical practice is in principle not a commercial service for profit, but rather a public service supported by the government’s power (1.12, 1.19, 1.21, 2.55, 3.57, 3.67); 3) Doctors should maintain their professional autonomy by establishing and observing the principles of self-regulation (1.1, 1.5, 1.31, 2.50, 5.109, 5.110). Referring to the historical experience of French doctors, the Korean medical community should also enter into a broad and fundamental reflection on the nature of medicine and the social role of the doctor.