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Marine traffic is increasing globally yet collisions with endangered megafauna such as whales, sea turtles, and planktivorous sharks go largely undetected or unreported. Collisions leading to mortality can have population-level consequences for endangered species. Hence, identifying simultaneous space use of megafauna and shipping throughout ranges may reveal as-yet-unknown spatial targets requiring conservation. However, global studies tracking megafauna and shipping occurrences are lacking. Here we combine satellite-tracked movements of the whale shark, Rhincodon typus, and vessel activity to show that 92% of sharks’ horizontal space use and nearly 50% of vertical space use overlap with persistent large vessel (>300 gross tons) traffic. Collision-risk estimates correlated with reported whale shark mortality from ship strikes, indicating higher mortality in areas with greatest overlap. Hotspots of potential collision risk were evident in all major oceans, predominantly from overlap with cargo and tanker vessels, and were concentrated in gulf regions, where dense traffic co-occurred with seasonal shark movements. Nearly a third of whale shark hotspots overlapped with the highest collision-risk areas, with the last known locations of tracked sharks coinciding with busier shipping routes more often than expected. Depth-recording tags provided evidence for sinking, likely dead, whale sharks, suggesting substantial “cryptic” lethal ship strikes are possible, which could explain why whale shark population declines continue despite international protection and low fishing-induced mortality. Mitigation measures to reduce ship-strike risk should be considered to conserve this species and other ocean giants that are likely experiencing similar impacts from growing global vessel traffic., [Significance] Global vessel traffic is increasing alongside world economic growth. The potential for rising lethal ship strikes on endangered species of marine megafauna, such as the plankton-feeding whale shark, remains poorly understood since areas of highest overlap are seldom determined across an entire species range. Here we show how satellite tracking whale sharks and large vessel movements globally provides a means to localize high-overlap areas and to determine how collision risk changes in time. Our results point to potential high levels of undetected or unreported ship strikes, which may explain why whale shark populations continue to decline despite protection and low fishing-induced mortality. Collision mitigations in high-collision-risk areas appear necessary to help conserve this iconic species., Funding for data analysis was provided by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) through a University of Southampton INSPIRE DTP PhD Studentship to F.C.W. Additional funding for data analysis was provided by NERC Discovery Science (NE/R00997/X/1) and the European Research Council (ERC-AdG-2019 883583 OCEAN DEOXYFISH) to D.W.S., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) under PTDC/BIA/28855/2017 and COMPETE POCI-01–0145-FEDER-028855, and MARINFO–NORTE-01–0145-FEDER-000031 (funded by Norte Portugal Regional Operational Program [NORTE2020] under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund–ERDF) to N.Q. FCT also supported N.Q. (CEECIND/02857/2018) and M.V. (PTDC/BIA-COM/28855/2017). D.W.S. was supported by a Marine Biological Association Senior Research Fellowship.

In Panama, shark fisheries were initially developed in the 1980s and progressively increased in production in the 1990s mainly due to the high demand for shark fins and meat from the international Asian market. Since then, and despite the exploitation rate (average 3,514 t year–¹) and endangered status of some species, shark fisheries have seldom been studied, and official statistics are general or incomplete and not suitable for the development of appropriate conservation and management strategies. To understand the dynamics of shark fisheries in Panama, field surveys were conducted between 2007 and 2009 at several landing ports of small‐scale and industrial fisheries, at fish processing plants and on‐board fishing vessels in Pacific Panama, where most of the fishing vessels of the country operate. In general, it was found that the artisanal and industrial fisheries of the Pacific coast of Panama regularly exploit at least 18 species of sharks, which are also being exploited by neighbouring countries in the eastern Pacific, suggesting the importance of coordinated conservation initiatives across the multiple jurisdictions. A large number of the individuals caught were immature, implying a certain level of impact on recruitment rates. This pattern was particularly evident in species such as Sphyrna lewini, for which immature individuals represented at least 99% and 63% of the total catch by small‐scale and industrial fisheries, respectively. Catch per unit of effort analyses showed that Carcharhinus and Sphyrna species were the most exploited (representing ~80% of the catches) by industrial fisheries in Panama between 2006 and 2009, suggesting that fishery management should provide special attention to these groups. It is expected that the information presented here provides a baseline to develop new regulations, including the implementation of annual quotas and fishing seasons and the protection of nursery areas, for the long‐term sustainability and conservation of sharks in Panama.

The effects of herbivores and sediment deposition on the structure and composition of the macroalgal communities on coral reefs were tested together experimentally and, in the field, in one of the most disturbed reefs of the Caribbean, the leeward reefs of the Bocas del Toro region, Panama. In this area, the potential natural herbivores have been replaced by small-bodied herbivores, mainly the urchin Echinometra viridis, and sediment deposition has increased as a result of land use in the zones close to the reefs. Experimental studies consisted of herbivorous exclusion and artificial increase in sediment deposition; while, in different sites of the studied area, relationships between macroalgal communities, herbivore abundance and sediment deposition were examined in situ. Both approaches suggest that changes on macroalgal species and the structure of the communities are mediated by herbivores and sediment deposition. The experimental approach showed an interaction between the studied factors. Sediment deposition, at the levels used in the experiment, did not limit the grazing of E. viridis. This urchin controlled the development of communities, mainly the erect macroalgae, independently of the level of sediment deposition tested. However, with the treatment of herbivores present and increase of sediment deposition, Ceramiales turf replaced cyanophytes. This contrasted with our findings in the field, where extreme values of sediment deposition coincided with minimal urchin populations. These last conditions favoured communities dominated by erect macroalgae, but their composition and abundance differ from those of communities that develop under low herbivory and low sedimentation because the deposited sediments also influence the community structure.

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is an endangered and highly migratory species, of which solitary individuals or aggregations are observed in oceans worldwide and for which conservation efforts are hindered by a lack of comprehensive data on genetic population connectivity. Tissue samples were collected from wandering whale sharks in Pacific Panama to determine genetic diversity, phylogeographic origin, and possible global and local connectivity patterns using a 700–800 bp fragment of the mitochondrial control region gene. Genetic diversity among samples was high, with five new haplotypes and nine polymorphic sites identified among the 15 sequences. Haplotype diversity (Hd= 0.83) and nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00516) were similar to those reported in other studies. Our sequences, in particular haplotypesPTY1andPTY2, were similar to those previously reported in the Arabian Gulf and the Western Indian Ocean populations (a novel occurrence in the latter case). HaplotypesPTY3,PTY4, andPTY5were similar to populations in Mexico and the Gulf of California. In contrast, the only populations to which our Panamanian sequences were genetically dissimilar were those from the Atlantic Ocean. The absence of reference sequences in GenBank from southern sites in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, such as Galapagos (Ecuador), Gorgona and Malpelo Islands (Colombia), and Coco Island (Costa Rica), reduced our capacity to genetically define regional patterns. Genetic differentiation and connectivity were also assessed using an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), which showed a similar population structure (five groups) to the neighbor-joining tree. Other population features based on neutrality tests, such as Tajima’s D and Fu’sFsstatistics, showed positive values for Panama of 0.79 and 1.61, respectively. Positive values of these statistics indicate a lack of evidence for population expansion among the sampled individuals. Our results agree with previous reports suggesting that whale sharks can travel over long distances and that transboundary conservation measures may be effective for species protection.

REPLYING TO H. Murua et al. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03396-4 (2021) Our previously published paper1 provided global fine-scale spatiotemporal estimates (1° × 1°; monthly) of overlap and fishing exposure risk (FEI) between satellite-tracked shark space use and automatic identification system (AIS) longline fishing effort. We did not assess shark mortality directly, but in addition to replying to the Comment by Murua et al.2, we confirm—using regression analysis of spatially matched data—that fishing-induced pelagic shark mortality (catch per unit effort (CPUE)) is greater where FEI is higher. We focused on assessing shark horizontal spatiotemporal overlap and exposure risk with fisheries because spatial overlap is a major driver of fishing capture susceptibility and previous shark ecological risk assessments (ERAs) assumed a homogenous shark density within species-range distributions3,4,5 or used coarse-scale modelled occurrence data, rather than more ecologically realistic risk estimates in heterogeneous habitats that were selected by sharks over time. Furthermore, our shark spatial exposure risk implicitly accounts for other susceptibility factors with equal or similar probabilities to those commonly used in shark ERAs3,5.

The shallow waters of the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP) harbor a species-rich octocoral fauna, with seven genera and 124 octocoral species described to date for the region. Of these lineages, Pacifigorgia, with 35 species, is by far the most speciose and abundant shallow-water octocoral occurring in the region. The speciation mechanisms resulting in this remarkable diversity remain speculative, despite the extensive taxonomic and molecular systematic research conducted so far in the TEP. Using genome-wide SNP markers, we provide evidence for hybridization and extensive cryptic speciation in Pacifigorgia, suggesting that the genus’ diversity has been underestimated by traditional and molecular systematic research. Our study highlights the difficulties faced by both traditional taxonomy and single-marker based molecular approaches to characterize octocoral diversity and evolution, and the role genome-wide molecular studies coupled to morphological research play to advance our understanding of this group.

Eastern gray whales undertake annual migrations between summer feeding grounds in the Bering and Chukchi Seas and winter breeding and calving lagoons in the west coast of Baja California, Mexico. On February 12, 2017, three adult gray whales were sighted at San José del Cabo, Mexico, in which one individual, named “María,” was tagged using a satellite telemetry transmitter (PTT). The PTT stopped the signal on July 11, 2017. María traveled 11,387 km during 149 days from San José del Cabo to the Chirikov Basin. The migration route was aligned close to the coastline (70 km) into the Bering Sea, including the Chirikov Basin. During March, April, and May, María traveled long distances at relatively high speeds, in contrast to the lower speed during February, early March, and the arrival time to the feeding areas in May, June, and July. The total distance traveled by María during its migration from Ojo de Liebre Lagoon to the Chirikov Basin was 8,863 km during 61.5 days with an average speed of 5.5 km h–1; this excludes the 14 days and 591 km that María spent feeding on the coast of Kodiak Island in late April. The information provided by this tagged whale documents a single whales’ migration, which is consistent with previous studies and constitutes the most complete northbound reported migration of an eastern gray whale.

Whale-watching has become an important economic activity for many coastal areas where whales aggregate at certain times of year. Las Perlas Archipelago in Panama, is a breeding ground for humpback whales, where the numbers of both visitors and tour operators have increased in recent years with little compliance and enforcement of regulations. Nevertheless, there is potential to improve whale-watching management at this site and its use as a tool for education and conservation awareness. Our objective was to assess tourist knowledge, perceptions and pro-conservation attitudes related to whale-watching and how this activity is managed in Las Perlas. One hundred and eleven tourists were surveyed in the summer of 2019 after they participated in whale‐watching tours. Our results indicated that in general, respondents had little knowledge about whales and their conservation before a whale-watching trip, however, after the excursion tourists felt they had learned more about whale biology and the regulations for whale-watching. Overall trip satisfaction after whale-watching activities was higher when whale behaviors, including breaching and tail slaps, were observed. The results also showed a lower satisfaction with non-compliance of regulations to reduce impacts of whale-watching, mainly related to the number of boats observing whales at the same time. Both knowledge and concern for lack of compliance seemed to be associated with whale-watching operations that had more formal interpretation activities onboard. The study highlights the importance of whale-watching as a tool for promoting whale conservation through education and the need to improve the enforcement of existing regulations and visitor monitoring to reduce potential whale-watching impacts.

REPLYING TO A. V. Harry & J. M. Braccini Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03463-w (2021) Our global analysis1 estimated the overlap and fishing exposure risk (FEI) using the space use of satellite-tracked sharks and longline fishing effort monitored by the automatic identification system (AIS). In the accompanying Comment, Harry and Braccini2 draw attention to two localized shark–longline vessel overlap hotspots in Australian waters, stating that 47 fishing vessels were misclassified as longline and purse seine vessels in the Global Fishing Watch (GFW)3 2012–2016 AIS fishing effort data product that we used. This, they propose2, results in misidentifications that highlight fishing exposure hotspots that are subject to an unexpected level of sensitivity in the analysis and they suggest that misidentifications could broadly affect the calculations of fishing exposure and the central conclusions of our study1. We acknowledged in our previously published paper1 that gear reclassifications were likely to occur for a small percentage of the more than 70,000 vessels studied, however, here we demonstrate that even using much larger numbers of vessel reclassifications than those proposed by Harry and Braccini2, the central results and conclusions of our paper1 do not change.

The present research aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by octocoral-associated bacteria Bacillus sp. BO53 and Pseudoalteromonas sp. GA327. The volatilome bioactivity of both bacteria species was evaluated against human pathogenic antibiotic-resistant bacteria, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter baumanni, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In this regard, the in vitro tests showed that Bacillus sp. BO53 VOCs inhibited the growth of P. aeruginosa and reduced the growth of S. aureus and A. baumanni. Furthermore, Pseudoalteromonas sp. GA327 strongly inhibited the growth of A. baumanni, and P. aeruginosa. VOCs were analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) joined to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methodology. Nineteen VOCs were identified, where 5-acetyl-2-methylpyridine, 2-butanone, and 2-nonanone were the major compounds identified on Bacillus sp. BO53 VOCs, while 1-pentanol, 2-butanone, and butyl formate were the primary volatile compounds detected in Pseudoalteromonas sp. GA327. We proposed that the observed bioactivity is mainly due to the efficient inhibitory biochemical mechanisms of alcohols and ketones upon antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This is the first report which describes the antibacterial activity of VOCs emitted by octocoral-associated bacteria.

Accidental oil discharges pose acute and chronic risks on coral communities, but knowledge on the ecological long-term implications is fragmentary. Here, we examine the potential short-, mid-, and long-term effects of a major oil spill on subtidal reef communities over a 30-year period using a multicontrol before-after-control-impact (BACI) approach. In April 1986, 8000 t (~ 9.3 106 L) of crude oil were released from a refinery in Bahia Las Minas (Caribbean Panama) contaminating an area of about 40 km2 consisting of intertidal and subtidal mangrove, seagrass, sandy, and coral reef habitats. Surveys of oiled and unpolluted control sites have been conducted at different times between 1985 and 2017 and changes in community metrics (i.e., percent live cover, diversity, community composition, and recruitment) were compared with pre-spill data. The main focus was on scleractinian corals, but impacts on other major benthic taxa were also considered. Short-term oil effects on scleractinian corals included substantial declines in live cover, and diversity as well as changes in community structure being detectable up to 4 years after the spill, while other benthic taxa were hardly affected. Branching corals, such as Acropora palmata, seemed to suffer more, but strong incident-related declines could also be seen in two massive species (i.e., Pseudodiploria clivosa and Porites astreoides). Recruitment rates were not significantly different relative to oil exposure, but number of recruits showed strong temporal variation both at the oiled and control sites. While short-term effects (1 year post-spill) could be unequivocally linked to the spill, assessment of mid-term impacts was complicated by cumulative, albeit different stressors (diseases, bleaching, warming, additional accidental oil discharges) that have been driving changes at oiled and control sites respectively and thus ultimately concealing any effects of the spill. Our data did not provide evidence of a long-term (> 10 years) chronic impact of the oil spill, but instead showed that a variety of factors have contributed to reef degradation both at oiled and control sites over the survey period.

Introduction: False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) is a tropical and subtropical social species that live in groups with individuals of mixed ages and sex classes. False killer whales have been documented since the late 1990s in Southwestern Costa Rica. Objective: To estimate the abundance of false killer whales in Osa Peninsula waters. Methods: Cetacean surveys off the Osa Peninsula Waters (OPW), Costa Rica, yielded opportunistic encounters with false killer whales in Drake Bay and Caño Island (2001-2015) and observations during formal surveys in Golfo Dulce (2005-2015). Photo-identification data was analyzed using capture-mark-recapture models in the study area, through an open population (POPAN) framework, considering the effect of time on the parameters apparent survival and capture probability, producing an abundance estimate for a superpopulation in the entire study area. Results: False killer whale abundance in OPW is characterized by a small population size of no more than 100 individuals, complemented by a very low probability of encounter and a contrasting high apparent survival. Conclusions: This population estimate should be taken as conservative, however, the small population size of less than 100 individuals should be considered vulnerable, in contrast to the increasing anthropogenic impacts in the coastal seascape. We argue the potential occurrence of population units along the coastal seascape of the Pacific littoral and oceanic island-associated units at Isla del Coco. Introducción: La falsa orca es una especie gregaria tropical y subtropical, que vive en grupos con individuos de diferentes clases de edad y sexo. La falsa orca ha sido documentada en el sur-oeste de Costa Rica desde finales de los 90s. Objetivo: Evaluar el uso de hábitat de la especie en términos de abundancia. Métodos: Observaciones en campo para cetáceos en aguas de la Península de Osa (APO), incluyen encuentros oportunísimos en Bahía de Drake y la Isla del Caño (2001-2015), así como observaciones directas de Pseudorca crassidens, durante muestreos formales en Golfo Dulce (2005-2015). Se analizaron datos sobre foto-identificación utilizando modelos de marcaje captura y recaptura, considerando un enfoque para población abierta (POPAN), el cual considera el efecto del tiempo en los parámetros demográficos: supervivencia aparente (ф) y probabilidad de captura (P), produciendo un estimado de abundancia que comprende toda la superpoblación en el área de estudio. Resultados: La abundancia de la falsa orca en APO se caracteriza por un tamaño poblacional pequeño, de menos de 100 individuos, que se complementa por una muy baja probabilidad de captura, en contraste con una supervivencia aparente alta. Conclusión: Este estimado debe tratarse como conservativo, no obstante, el pequeño número poblacional, de menos de 100 individuos debe considerarse como vulnerable, en contraste con el incremento del impacto antropogénico del paisaje marino costero. Se discute la posible presencia de unidades poblacionales en el paisaje costero del litoral Pacífico y de unidades oceánicas asociadas a la Isla del Coco.

Gorgonian octocorals are considered a prolific source of secondary metabolites with a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory activity. In particular, the genus Briareum is known for producing a wealth of diterpenes with complex chemical structures. The chemical study of the methanolic extract of Briareum asbestinum collected in Bocas del Toro, on the Caribbean side of Panama, led to the isolation of three new eunicellin-type diterpenes: briarellin T (1), asbestinin 27 (2), asbestinin 28 (3) and the previously described asbestinin 17 (4). The structures of the new compounds were determined by extensive NMR analyses and HRMS. Anti-inflammatory activity assays showed a significant reduction of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-&alpha, IL-6, IL-1&beta, and IL-8 as well as a downregulation of COX-2 expression in LPS-stimulated THP-1 macrophages. These findings support the potential use of these marine compounds as therapeutic agents in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The role and impact of killer whales Orcinus orca as predators of baleen whales has been emphasized by studies of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae. In this study, rake marks on the fluke were used as a proxy for predatory attacks in a sample of 2909 adult humpback whales and 133 calves from 5 breeding and 2 feeding locations in the eastern South Pacific and the Antarctic Peninsula. The goal of this study was to evaluate how often, at what age, where, and when humpback whales were more susceptible to attacks. Overall, 11.5% of adults and 19.5% of calves had rake marks on their flukes. Significant differences were found in the prevalence of scars in calves when comparing breeding (9%) vs. feeding areas (34%) (χ2 = 10.23, p < 0.01). Multi-year sighting analysis of scar acquisition in 120 adults (82% site fidelity) and 37 calves in the Magellan Strait showed no new marks after the initial sighting for the subsequent 15 yr. This finding indicates that rake marks were most probably acquired when whales were calves, which supports the belief that scar acquisition is a once in a lifetime event. The odds of having rake marks increased with time but with a significantly higher rate in calves (χ2 = 5.04, p < 0.05), which suggests an increase in predation pressure over time. Our results support the earlier hypothesis that killer whale attacks occur mostly on calves, near breeding sites, and during the first migration to feeding areas.

In the eastern Pacific Ocean, the genus Thesea has only been reported off Isla del Coco, Costa Rica, and La Jolla, California. Herein we describe a new species of Thesea from the threatened mesophotic zone of Hannibal Bank seamount and report the occurrence of the genus in Panama. The morphological characters of the species were analyzed and illustrated by optic and scanning electron microscopy. Thesea dalioi sp. nov. can be distinguished from the only other eastern Pacific species, Thesea variabilis (Studer, 1894), in the colony shape, branch thickness, prominent polyp mounds, bright red color of the colony and sclerites, and the size and composition of sclerites. This new species represents the second published report for the genus in the region and contributes to our understanding of the diversity and distribution of the octocorals from the mesophotic zone in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Octocoral species are the main foundation species in rocky-wall coral communities off Pacific Panama; however, little is known about their reproductive biology. The present study quantifies the annual variation of reproductive traits in three common octocoral species from the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean with different colony morphology: the sea whip, Leptogorgia alba (Duchassaing and Michelotti, 1864), the sea rod, Muricea austera Verrill, 1869, and the sea fan, Pacifigorgia ferruginea Breedy and Guzman, 2004. Samples were collected on a monthly basis from March 2015 to February 2016 at a site affected seasonally by upwelling in the Gulf of Panama. The reproductive peak of L. alba experienced a 2-mo delay relative to the coldest period (February), while the reproductive period of M. austera and P. ferruginea occurred 1 mo before the warmest period (July). Muricea austera oocytes were constantly produced, with relative large size and in substantial quantities (approximately 0.34 mm in diameter and about 33 oocytes per polyp). Leptogorgia alba and P. ferruginea had distinct reproductive seasons with fewer (approximately 3 and 2, respectively) and smaller oocytes (approximately 0.05 and 0.22 mm, respectively). Results indicate that the three species are broadcast spawners and that spawning is related to water temperature.

Sea turtles migrate from breeding grounds to foraging areas through the territorial waters of several countries. Olive ridleys lack clear migratory routes, which makes it a challenge for conservation. This study aimed to evaluate if the migratory behavior of olive ridleys nesting on the Pacific Coast of Panama is correlated to environmental conditions along the migration and to identify common foraging areas. Thirty-four olive ridley turtles were tagged with satellite transmitters along the Pacific coast of Panama and tracked for up to nine months. A Hidden Markov Model was used to identify behavioral states (foraging and migrating) and their correlation to chlorophyll a concentration, sea surface temperature, eddy kinetic energy, and primary productivity. Turtle tracks overlapped with eddies and industrial fishing areas. The probability of foraging rather than migrating was positively correlated to sea surface temperature, productivity and chlorophyll levels and negatively correlated to eddy kinetic energy. Turtles spent an average 30% of their time migrating and 70% foraging. Only 8.4% of the turtle locations occurred within an eddy, and 82.7% of the locations overlapped with previously described industrial fishing areas. Although this sea turtle species seems to migrate freely, without clear migratory corridors, turtles may have preferred foraging destinations that they travel to through different migratory routes, such as the gulfs of Tehuantepec, Fonseca, and Guayaquil. Turtles traveled up to 6,684 km through nine countries, most of them foraging in oceanic waters in Salvador, Costa Rica, and Panama, which highlights the importance of collaborative conservation strategies throughout foraging and nesting areas. The creation of a regional management unit, including Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia, is discussed based on the observed seasonal overlap with the use of multiple fishing gears in coastal and oceanic fishing areas.

The distribution and conservation status of coral reefs along the northern section of the archipelago of Bocas del Toro are evaluated (ca. 120 km), and the structure of 18 reefs around the islands of Bastimentos, Solarte, Carenero and Colón is described. Reef habitats located on the seaward side (exposed) of the islands exhibited the lowest coral cover (8%) and coral diversity, while leeward reefs (protected) showed the highest living coral cover (32%) and diversity. Macroalgae coverage was similar in both habitats but high (50%) if compared with other continental reefs described in the Ensenada Grande of Almirante Bay (4%). A total of 54 coral species was recorded, representing a 35% increase from previous studies for the regíon and 88% of the total species described fOr Panamá. The diversity of reefs, reef organisms and habitats in the archipelago was greater outside the national park of Isla Bastimentos, the only marine protected area in western Panamá. Sorne recommendations are provided for an integrated management of marine-terrestríal natural resources in the region, in particular, a complete change on the existing limits of the protected area and the creation of new reserves. Se presenta la distribución de arrecifes coralinos a lo largo de la costa de las islas de Bastimentos, Solarte, Carenero y Colón (ca. 120 km), Provincia de Bocas del Toro, Panamá. Se describe la estructura de 18 arrecifes coralinos, los cuales representan la diversidad de hábitats. y condiciones hidrológicas y geográficas de la zona costera del archipiélago. Los arrecifes encontrados en hábitats a barlovento de las islas (expuestos), son menos diversos en corales y presentan una cobertura de coral vivo baja ( 8%), mientras que los arrecifes de hábitats protegidos (sotavento), son los de mayor diversidad y cobertura de corales (3 2%). Las macroalgas presentaron un patrón similar de cobertura con promedio de 5 0%, alta si se le compara con arrecifes descritos para la Ensenada Grande de Almirante (4%), al sur del archipiélago. Se registra un aumento del 3 5% en el nú­ mero de especies de corales para Bocas del Toro; el total de especies conocidas para la región es de 54, lo cual representa el 88% del total de la diversidad para Panamá. Se encontró que los arrecifes del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentas no representan la variedad de hábitats, diversidad de especies y abundancia que están presentes en otras localidades fuera de los límites del área protegida. Se señalan recomendaciones para el manejo integral de los recursos naturales marinos y terrestres del archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, donde se proponen variantes a los límites existentes del área protegida y la creación de nuevas categorías de protección (reservas biológicas), entre otros.

Both natural and anthropogenic factors are changing coral-reef structure and function worldwide. Long-term monitoring has revealed declines in the local composition and species diversity of reefs. Here we report changes in coral-reef community structure over 12 yr (2000–2012) at 17 sites and three spatial scales (reef, gulf and country) in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (Panama). We found a significant 4% annual decline in species population sizes at the country and gulf scales, with significant declines ranging from 3 to 32% at all but one reef. No significant temporal change in expected richness was found at the country scale or in the Gulf of Chiriqui, but a 7% annual decline in expected species richness was found in the Gulf of Panama. There was a 2% increase in community evenness in the Gulf of Chiriqui, but no change in the Gulf of Panama. Significant temporal turnover was found at the country and gulf scales and at 29% of the reefs, a finding mostly explained by changes in species abundance, and losses and gains of rare species. Temporal trends in alpha and beta diversity metrics were explained by water temperature maxima, anomalies and variation that occurred even in the absence of a strong El Nino warming event.

Despite global awareness of trace-metal contamination in the ocean, its bioaccumulation through the food web, and resulting detrimental effects on health, the quantitative toxicology of marine turtles is still poorly known. Assessments are generally limited in number of species investigated, number of tissues analyzed, and geographical distribution of samples. The gaps in current knowledge prevent the use of that data in informing data-deficient regions of the potential exposure to toxic levels of heavy metals through sea turtle consumption, particularly from eggs given their widespread human consumption. We collated 95 studies reporting As, Cd, Hg, and/or Pb concentrations in edible sea turtle tissues and analyzed the data for differences among tissues and geographic locations. The majority (68%) of observations were from Caretta caretta or Chelonia mydas, with 59% of data from liver, kidney, muscle, or blood; and only 8.2% from eggs. We observed the expected tissue-selective distributions for all metals, but with significance only for As (muscle) and Cd (kidney). Cd posed the highest potential health concern, through consumption of kidney and liver, while Pb and Hg posed the highest concern through egg and muscle tissue, respectively. Data are sparse, however our conclusions show that heavy metal exposure through regular sea turtle consumption may pose a health concern. Future analyses, with priority given to eggs, adult olive ridleys, and adult hawksbills are needed to fully understand the human-health risks of global sea turtle consumption.

The Mg/Ca ratios of non-geniculate coralline red algae (CA) are often assumed to be solely dependent on the sea surface temperature (SST) in which they grow, suggesting that they are ideal proxies for SST reconstruction. Mg/Ca ratio cyclicity is also commonly used as a marker for annual growth band identification in many CA species. However, other controls on elemental uptake such as light, calcification mechanisms, and vital effects may control elemental ratios (e.g. Mg/Ca and P/Ca) in certain genera or species of CA, thus complicating the use of Mg/Ca and P/Ca ratios as a proxy source for SST and paleo-environmental reconstructions. Here we present evidence showing that the Mg/Ca and P/Ca ratio cyclicity in unattached living tropical Lithothamnion sp. (n = 8) rhodoliths correlate > 90% to the number of sub-annual growth bands (n = 1 to 20) formed during a 172-day controlled growth experiment and not to temperature or other environmental conditions (e.g. salinity, pH, etc.). This pattern is also observed in the wild, pre-experimental growth further supporting that the bands are not annual. The Mg/Ca alga (R 2 = 0.67; p -value = 0.013; n = 8) and P/Ca alga (R 2 = 0.64; p -value = 0.018; n = 8) significantly correlate to skeletal extension during the experiment. This work has implications for trace elemental proxy development using CA as well as the influence of skeletal extension on elemental incorporation in biogenic carbonates, particularly rhodoliths of Lithothamnion sp. from the Gulf of Panama, Panama.

Long-term re-sightings of individuals used in satellite telemetry research are important for determining the effects of tagging on large whales. We evaluated the initial behavioral response, healing process, and short-term reproductive behavior and success of 7 percutaneous-tagged humpback whales (4 M, 3 F) monitored for 4–10 years in the feeding ground of the Magellan Strait, Chile. We took post-tagging photographs incidentally every year during re-sighting expeditions. We did not observe an initial reaction to tagging or sudden change in behavior or direction of movement. Two of the females had 3 and 2 calves before tagging, and one of them had 2 calves every 3 years after tagging. Post-tagging annual site fidelity remained nearly 100%. We did not observe initial tag protrusion in any individual. Four whales (57%) showed no signs of initial tissue damage shortly after tagging; we observed tissue shedding in 2 individuals, and traces of blood on 1 whale. Complete wound healing apparently occurred in all individuals within the first 2 years after tagging, and 5 of them showed no scars 3–6 years later. Four individuals showed small to medium (

Rhodoliths are a proxy data source for understanding environment and climate variation in tropical to arctic oceans. A clear understanding of growth pattern and rate is required to interpret time-series proxy data. Variability in growth on multiple-axes of a single rhodolith has not been extensively studied. This investigation compares algal band counting and dating methods found in the literature, and has implications for detecting biases in branch selection for growth and geochemical analyses. Panamanian rhodoliths (Lithothamnion sp.) were collected at the Archipelago de Las Perlas, Gulf of Panama (GOP). Alizarin Red S (ARS) stain was used to study growth rates and banding patterns for 10 branched samples randomly selected for microcosm experiments over a 172-day period. DNA analysis was used to help determine the dominant species present in the sample group and reduce the possibility of inter-sample variation. Samples were overturned every 2 weeks for a multi-axial growth test and were grown under ambient seawater conditions except for the addition of LED lighting. Growth post-ARS staining was measured along the long (A), intermediate (B), and short (C) axes. Bisected branches show banding correlated with growth rate while banding was highly variable within an individual and between individuals. Average growth band widths in both the pre- and post-ARS stained growth were approximately the same, suggesting that non-environmental factors, such as overturning or biological influences, can cause the formation of growth increments. Differences in growth pattern and rate suggest that careful inspection of growth formation is needed before pursuing rhodolith-based time series proxy research.

This work presents a methodology to automatically detect and identify manatee vocalizations in continuous passive acoustic underwater recordings. Given that vocalizations of each manatee present a slightly different frequency content, it is possible to identify individuals using a non-invasive acoustic approach. The recordings are processed in four stages, including detection, denoising, classification, and manatee counting and identification by vocalization clustering. The main contribution of this work is considering the vocalization spectrogram as an image (i.e., two-dimensional pattern) and representing it in terms of principal component analysis coefficients that feed a clustering approach. A performance study is carried out for each stage of the scheme. The methodology is tested to analyze three years of recordings from two wetlands in Panama to support ongoing efforts to estimate the manatee population.

Humans have elevated global extinction rates and thus lowered global scale species richness. However, there is no a priori reason to expect that losses of global species richness should always, or even often, trickle down to losses of species richness at regional and local scales, even though this relationship is often assumed. Here, we show that scale can modulate our estimates of species richness change through time in the face of anthropogenic pressures, but not in a unidirectional way. Instead, the magnitude of species richness change through time can increase, decrease, reverse, or be unimodal across spatial scales. Using several case studies, we show different forms of scale‐dependent richness change through time in the face of anthropogenic pressures. For example, Central American corals show a homogenization pattern, where small scale richness is largely unchanged through time, while larger scale richness change is highly negative. Alternatively, birds in North America showed a differentiation effect, where species richness was again largely unchanged through time at small scales, but was more positive at larger scales. Finally, we collated data from a heterogeneous set of studies of different taxa measured through time from sites ranging from small plots to entire continents, and found highly variable patterns that nevertheless imply complex scale‐dependence in several taxa. In summary, understanding how biodiversity is changing in the Anthropocene requires an explicit recognition of the influence of spatial scale, and we conclude with some recommendations for how to better incorporate scale into our estimates of change. Postprint

Effective ocean management and the conservation of highly migratory species depend on resolving the overlap between animal movements and distributions, and fishing effort. However, this information is lacking at a global scale. Here we show, using a big-data approach that combines satellite-tracked movements of pelagic sharks and global fishing fleets, that 24% of the mean monthly space used by sharks falls under the footprint of pelagic longline fisheries. Space-use hotspots of commercially valuable sharks and of internationally protected species had the highest overlap with longlines (up to 76% and 64%, respectively), and were also associated with significant increases in fishing effort. We conclude that pelagic sharks have limited spatial refuge from current levels of fishing effort in marine areas beyond national jurisdictions (the high seas). Our results demonstrate an urgent need for conservation and management measures at high-seas hotspots of shark space use, and highlight the potential of simultaneous satellite surveillance of megafauna and fishers as a tool for near-real-time, dynamic management., Data analysis was funded in part by the Marine Biological Association (MBA) and the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) (NE/R00997X/1) (to D.W.S.) with additional research support from the Save Our Seas Foundation and the NERC Oceans 2025 Strategic Research Programme, in which D.W.S. was a principal investigator. D.W.S. was supported by an MBA Senior Research Fellowship, N.Q. by European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) via the Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização (COMPETE), National Funds via Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) under PTDC/MAR/100345/2008 and COMPETE FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-010580 (to N.Q. and D.W.S.), and Norte Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020) under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) in project MarInfo (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000031). Additional support was provided by an FCT Investigator Fellowship IF/01611/2013 (N.Q.), FCT Doctoral Fellowship PD/BD/52603/2014 (M.V.), PTDC/MAR-BIO/4458/2012, Xunta de Galicia - Isabel Barreto Program 2009-2012 (G.M.), Australian Research Council (ARC) grant DE170100841 and operational funds from the Australian Institute for Marine Science (AIMS) (both to A.M.M.S.).

Long-term changes in macroalgal cover, spatial variation between macroalgal communities, and relationships with environmental variables and benthic groups were assessed in coral reefs along the Caribbean coast of Panama. Sampling was conducted in two regions: Western and Central. Data collected between 2000 and 2012 showed a continuous increase in macroalgal abundance, although patterns differed according to region and site. There were differences in macroalgal communities between regions, as well as within regions between different wave-exposure levels. There were also differences between sites within regions exposed to the same level of wave action. Multivariate analysis found that wave exposure along with herbivore density ( Echinometra viridis ) and sedimentation were the variables that explained most of the variability between communities. Other variables such as Echinometra lucunter and Diadema antillarum densities, fish density, productivity, and live coral cover had significant relationships with community structure, but explained less of the variability.

Bioerosion is a natural process in coral reefs. It is fundamental to the health of these ecosystems. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) coral reefs, the most important bioeroders are sponges, bivalves, sea urchins and the fish Arothron meleagris. In the 1980s, El Nino caused high coral mortality and an increase in macroalgal growth. As a result, greater sea urchin bioerosion occurred. This weakened the reef framework. Considering the high vulnerability of the ETP coral reefs, the goal of this study was to determine the current bioerosion impact of the sea urchin Diadema mexicanum along the western coasts of Mexico, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama. The balance between coral bioaccretion and sea urchin bioerosion was also calculated. Between 2009 and 2010, in 12 coral reefs localities, D. mexicanum density, bottom cover and rugosity were quantified along band transects. The daily bioerosion rate was obtained from the amount of carbonates evacuated by sea urchins per unit time. The rate of coral accretion was calculated by multiplying the coral growth rate of the dominant genus by the density of their skeleton and by their specific coral cover. The localities were dissimilar (R = 0.765, P

Concentrations of eight elements were measured in Chelonia mydas and Lepidochelys olivacea eggs collected along the Pacific coast of Panama. Manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) concentrations were similar to previous reports of these species from around the world, while lead (Pb) was lower than previous reports. Cd posed the highest health risk to people who regularly eat the eggs, with average consumption rates leading to target hazard quotients (THQ) of up to 0.35 ± 0.15. Our conclusions indicate that current turtle egg consumption in isolated, coastal Pacific communities may pose a health concern for young children, and that youth and young adults should limit their consumption of turtle eggs to reduce their total intake of nonessential metals.

Several errors came to our attention after our manuscript was published, which we address here. First, Figure ​Figure99 corresponds to the colour plate under Figure ​Figure10;10; Figure ​Figure1010 corresponds to the SEM plate under Figure ​Figure9.9. Second, Figure ​Figure1313 corresponds to the SEM plate under Figure ​Figure14.14. Third, Figure ​Figure1414 is a new plate that was missing. Finally “Figure 12” that is written under Genus Swiftia Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864, in page 21 is a typo. Figure 9. Muricea tubigera Verrill, 1869a YPM 807. A Colony B Detail of branches C Sclerites, light micrograph. Figure 10. Muricea tubigera Verrill, 1869a YPM 807. A, B Calycular and coenenchymal spindles C, D Axial sheath spindles. Figure 13. Astrogorgia splendens (Thomson & Simpson, 1909), BM 1933.05.03.094. SEM sclerites. Figure 14. Leptogorgia ruberrima (W. Koch, 1886), BM 1933-03-13-024. A Fragment of the holotype B Sclerites, light micrograph C SEM sclerites. The correct, whole Figures and captions are reproduced here below.

To reduce the whale-vessel strike risk in the Gulf of Panama, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted a Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) with corresponding inshore traffic zones and seasonal (Aug–Nov) speed limits of ≤10 kn (Speed Over Ground, SOG) commencing December 2014. Here, we assessed compliance rates to these new regulations. Vessel traffic data in the area were obtained between 2014 (pre-TSS implementation) and 2016 using Automated Identification System (AIS) transponders. Most vessels (86.1 and 89.8% in 2015 and 2016, respectively) promptly adhered to the TSS. Significant differences were also detected in speed compliance rates among years, but overall speed compliance was low, i.e., only 19.0% of ships in 2015 and 9.7% in 2016 traveled at ≤10 kn. Compliance rates with the TSS and speed limits varied significantly by vessel type. These divergent compliance responses were likely due to inadequate communication to mariners and notes on printed and digital charts. Speed compliance could be enhanced, e.g. via education programs to raise awareness of endangered whales, along with collaborative initiatives between the maritime industry and port authorities, and law enforcement. In addition, continued monitoring of compliance with IMO regulations, as well as ship-related cetacean injuries/mortality by local environmental authorities should aid assessing the efficacy of these conservation measures and mitigating the whale-vessel strike risk in the Gulf of Panama. Above all though, authorities need to evaluate a mandatory speed regulation by the IMO or unilaterally, based on the newly modified and extended baseline for nation's internal waters.