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Cellulose was extracted from coconut shell powder (CSP) as a source of natural fiber, and used as reinforcing material in casein composite films. Extraction was done by delignification and mercerization of CSP, with yield of 27.5% cellulose. The isolated cellulose was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The SEM micrographs revealed that the mean width of microfibrils was 5–20 µm, while AFM showed mean surface roughness of 1.37 nm. FTIR spectra revealed the absence of lignin and hemicellulose in the cellulose, indicating their successful removal from CSP during extraction of cellulose. XRD indicated crystallinity content of 65.4% in cellulose. The flow properties of extracted cellulose were compared with that of commercial grade cellulose. The bulk, tapped and true densities of extracted cellulose were 368.8, 493.8 and 1313 kg/m3, respectively, whereas Hausner ratio and Carr’s index were 1.34 and 25.3%, respectively. The reinforcing capacity of 3% cellulose was evaluated in casein films prepared by casting. Casein composite films with added cellulose increased their tensile strength and elastic modulus from 4.98 to 7.20 MPa and 9.91 to 83.42 MPa, respectively. However, the tensile strain decreased from 52.08 to 8.66% after incorporation of cellulose, indicating good toughness and resistance to deformation.

The aim of this study was to develop a niosomal system to deliver milk bioactive peptides with potential for enhanced bioavailability. Milk casein was hydrolyzed with Flavourzyme, and the hydrolysates were ultrafiltered to obtain low-molecular-weight peptides with enhanced antioxidant activity. Biopeptide-loaded niosomes were prepared by a high shear homogenization method. Peptide-loaded niosomes exhibited a mean particle size of 37.64 ± 0.98 nm with narrow size distribution (PDI = 24.66 ± 0.008%) and high zeta potential (-23.36 mV). The niosomes encapsulated about 67% of peptides into the vesicles and showed controlled and sustained release under simulated gastrointestinal conditions as compared to free peptides. The antioxidant activity of the peptides was not affected due to their encapsulation into niosomes. Morphology of peptide-loaded niosomes was determined by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, and the microstructural interactions analyzed by Fourier transform infrared clearly indicated the formation of peptide-loaded niosomes. High-performance liquid chromatography spectra of peptides in the niosomes and the free peptides were similar, thus confirming their entrapment into the niosomes.

Zinc sulphate heptahydrate was microencapsulated by spray-drying using maltodextrin, HI-CAP® 100 and whey protein isolate as wall materials. Spray-drying conditions were optimised using Taguchi orthogonal array design with encapsulation efficiency and bulk density as responses. The influences of wall material, wall material to zinc ratio and inlet air temperature were evaluated. Microcapsules prepared with HI-CAP® 100 in 20:1 loading ratio at 185 °C had maximum encapsulation efficiency (92.65%), whereas 10:1 ratio yielded maximum bulk density (541.2 kg/m3). SEM micrographs revealed the spherical structure of microcapsules, while EDX confirmed the presence of zinc in the microcapsules. SEM micrographs, FTIR and XRD analyses showed that zinc was successfully encapsulated as microcapsules. The tapped, bulk and particle densities of zinc microcapsules were in the range of 586.15–698.15, 437.40–541.20 and 1263.25–1436.50 kg/m3, respectively, while flowability was ‘fair' to ‘passable’. The adsorption isotherm of microcapsules was sigmoidal, and was described by GAB model. Fortification of milk with zinc microcapsules did not affect its inherent organoleptic qualities.

BACKGROUND To overcome the problems associated with niosomes, proniosomes - a dry powder - was prepared to nanoencapsulate catechins using Span 60 as surfactant, cholesterol as stabilizer and maltodextrin, lactose monohydrate and pullulan as wall materials. The proniosomes were made by the thin-film hydration technique, and were characterized for fortification in milk beverages. Scanning and atomic force microscopic images showed the varying morphology and ultrastructure of the proniosomes. The mean hydrodynamic diameter of 193.57-262.52 nm, polydispersity index of 0.24-0.25 and zeta potential of -15.8 to -24.73 were suggestive of the size, homogeneity and stability of the catechin-loaded proniosomes. X-ray powder diffractograms and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra provided insight about the interaction between catechins and wall materials. Entrapment efficiency and in vitro release were calculated to determine the extent of nanoencapsulation of catechins and their bioavailability, respectively. The nanoencapsulates were fortified in milk and yogurt to find their organoleptic acceptability. RESULTS Moisture content was found to be 20-30 g kg-1 , indicating longer stability of the proniosomes. Scanning electron microscopic and atomic force microscopic images revealed the ultrastructure and spherical-shaped morphology of proniosomes. Entrapment efficiency of catechins using pullulan as wall material was as high as 83.43%. In vitro release studies revealed the sustained release of catechins from the proniosomes. FTIR and X-ray diffraction spectra revealed the absence of chemical interactions between catechins and encapsulants. CONCLUSION Food-grade proniosomes are a good vehicle for fortification of milk and yogurt without noticeable adverse changes in their organoleptic and physicochemical properties, thus increasing the potential for bioavailability of catechins in the gastrointestinal tract. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chhana podo, a popular dairy product of India, is prepared by baking the dough of chhana (heat-acid coagulated milk solids), semolina and sugar. Heat induced moisture loss during baking influences the chain of physico-chemical changes, which in turn determine the quality of the final product. Thus, in this work, modelling approaches for predicting moisture transfer during baking of chhana podo prepared by replacing semolina with tikhur (Curcuma angustifolia) starch were developed. Moisture loss, moisture ratio, specific volume, oven spring, volumetric expansion and other physico-chemical quality changes of the dough were determined during baking, and were used in the development of moisture transfer models. The effective moisture diffusivity of chhana podo increased from 8.10 × 10–9 to 37.05 × 10–9 m2/s as baking temperature increased from 110 to 150 °C. The artificial neural networks (ANN) model based on multilayer feed-forward (MLFF) algorithm and radial basis function (RBF) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) models based on Sugeno-type fuzzy inference system were developed to predict moisture ratio, and their predictive performance was compared with classical multiple linear regression and empirical models. Amongst the four prediction approaches, the MLFF neural network with baking temperature and time as input factors, and with 12 neurons in the hidden layer, produced the best performance in predicting moisture ratio with R2 as high as 0.9946 (99.46% accuracy) and RMSE of 0.0188 for the entire range of baking temperature studied. Sensitivity analysis showed that baking temperature was the most influential parameter (strength ratio was 0.89) deciding moisture transfer. MLFF neural network was observed to be a simple and efficient technique for predicting the complex moisture transfer phenomenon during baking, which could be used by the industry to optimize the baking conditions.

Thermal properties of pantoa were determined during deep-fat frying in sunflower oil at 125-145°C. Thermal conductivity (k: 0.357 to 0.199 Wm -1 K -1 ), thermal diffusivity (α: 0.105x10 -6 to 0.140x10 -6 m 2 s -1 ) and volumetric specific heat (C p : 3.275 to 1.401 MJm -3 K -1 ) were measured simultaneously using dual probe heat pulse technique. Thermal conductivity and volumetric specific heat of pantoa decreased as the moisture content decreased, while thermal diffusivity increased with the decrease in moisture content. Empirical models were also developed as a function of moisture content, fat content and temperature of frying of pantoa . It was found that moisture content was inversely related to fat content during the progress of frying. The thermal properties and the developed models would be useful in the mathematical modeling of heat transfer in pantoa during DFF.

The main aim of this study was to deliver green tea catechins with enhanced bioavailability using niosomal system. Catechins-loaded niosomes were prepared using food grade surfactant, Tween 60 and membrane stabilizers namely, lauryl alcohol, cetyl alcohol and cholesterol by thin film hydration technique. Catechins-loaded niosomes exhibited a hydrodynamic diameter of 58.48 nm with a narrow size distribution (PDI = 0.13) and zeta potential of - 31.75 mV, suggestive for homogeneity and good stability. Niosomes entrapped about 85.82% of catechin and showed sustained release under simulated GI conditions. Morphology of niosomal vesicles were carried out using scanning electron microscopy-energy X-ray dispersion spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and High-performance liquid chromatography analysis confirmed successful encapsulation of catechins. Antioxidant activity of catechins was retained in the niosomal form. Fortification of milk with catechins loaded niosomes showed no significant changes on sensory, physicochemical properties and exhibited higher antioxidant property.

The aim of the present study was to generate thermographic profile of foot region viz. body temperature (BTºC), coronary band temperature (CBTºC), hoof skin surface temperature (HSSTºC) and mean temperature difference (ΔTºC) in Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) and its relation with ambient temperature. A total of 60 hooves of lactating Murrah buffaloes (n = 15) maintained in a farm, were monitored once a day continuously for 15 days before evening milking using forward-looking infrared (FLIR) i5 camera. Total of 1125 thermograms were analyzed using FLIR Quick Report 1.2 image analysis software. The mean ± SD (°C) of BT, CBT, HSST and ΔT of all animals throughout the experimental period were 37.39±0.05, 34.93±0.13, 34.16±0.13 and 0.76±0.26 respectively. The CBT was around 0.5 to 1°C higher than HSST. Statistical analysis revealed that ambient temperature is highly and positively correlated with CBT (ºC) (r = 0.95) and HSST (ºC) (r = 0.99), indicating greater influence of ambient temperature on surface temperature of foot region. Therefore, CBT (ºC) and HSST (ºC) have a tendency to follow variations in ambient temperature (R2 = 0.91 and 0.98 respectively). However, significant difference was observed between BT vs. CBT, BT vs. HSST and CBT vs. HSST (ºC). The mean ± SD (°C) of ΔT of all animals, throughout the observation period was 0.96±0.41. A significant difference was observed in ΔT between animals (P

BACKGROUND Bioactive peptides derived from milk proteins are recognized as functional foods, but their consumption is limited by undesirable or bitter flavour, poor stability, and low bioavailability. Electrospinning is a versatile process for encapsulation of various bioactive compounds in the form of nanosized fibres, which can circumvent these disadvantages. This study was aimed at the preparation of casein-derived peptides-loaded nanofibres through electrospinning and characterizing them for fortification of milk. RESULTS Pullulan at 100, 120, and 140 g kg-1 concentrations was used for electrospinning of peptides. Scanning electron and atomic force micrographs revealed the formation of clean bead-free peptides-loaded pullulan nanofibres at 120 and 140 g kg-1 concentrations with mean diameter of 60.45-133.05 nm and encapsulation efficiency of 72.95-86.04%. Fourier transform infrared spectra and X-ray diffractograms revealed the absence of interactions between the functional groups of pullulan and peptides during electrospinning. The zeta potential of the peptides-loaded nanofibres ranged from -15.6 to -24.6 mV, and the hydrodynamic diameter varied from 118.7 to 256.2 nm. The peptides from electrospun nanofibres showed sustained release to the extent of 75.3% after 8 h in gastrointestinal pH conditions. The release kinetics of peptides from nanofibres was best fitted to a Peppas-Sahlin model (R2 = 0.987), and through diffusion and erosion mechanisms. The antioxidant activity of pure peptides and those from nanofibres was comparable. The physico-chemical qualities of milk fortified with encapsulated peptides did not show noticeable difference either. CONCLUSIONS From the morphological, ultrastructural, particle size, encapsulation efficiency, release kinetics, and antioxidant activity data, it was inferred that electrospinning could be an effective technique for nanoencapsulation of casein-derived bioactive peptides. These peptides-loaded nanofibres could be used for fortification of milk and milk products. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Utilization of resveratrol as a nutraceutical in foods is limited due to its low bioavailability and chemical instability. Therefore, resveratrol was encapsulated into nanofibres by electrospinning at concentrations of 15, 18 and 21% TS, applied voltage of 13, 18 and 23 kV and feed rates of 0.6 and 1 mL/h using WPI-pullulan as wall material. Electrospinning conditions were optimized as 18% TS, 18 kV applied voltage and 0.6 mL/h flow rate. SEM images showed formation of clean and continuous fibres at 18 and 23 kV applied voltage, with a mean fibre diameter of 63 to 208 nm and encapsulation efficiency of 74 and 96.70%. Successful encapsulation of resveratrol was confirmed by FTIR and XRD analyses. The zeta potential of resveratrol-loaded nanofibres was in the range of − 20.5 to − 32.2 mV, suggestive of higher stability. The antioxidant property of resveratrol in nanofibres was retained. No significant physiochemical and sensorial changes were observed in resveratrol fortified milk.

Detection of lameness early in cows is important from the animal welfare point of view and for reducing economic losses. Currently, many studies are being conducted for assessment of hoof health status by measuring the surface temperature of skin in cattle and other animal species in different parts of the world. Infrared Thermography (IRT) is able to detect lesions of hooves associated with lameness by measuring the changes in coronary band and hoof skin surface temperature. The surface temperature of a lame limb will be increased when the hoof has lesion(s). IRT has been used as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for early detection of hoof lesions based on the temperature difference between affected and non-affected hoof and maximum foot temperature on the regions of interest. In spite of having many potential applications in cattle production, factors affecting the temperature readings in thermograms must also are considered while taking images. Standard operating procedures must be established before taking thermographs under different circumstances, by considering all the factors that affect its normal function. IRT may help in minimising the cost of veterinary services, low yield, compromised fertility and culling expenses, where lameness cannot be resolved in early stages.

Resveratrol, a natural polyphenol widely applauded for its cardio-protective and anti-cancer activity, has limited application due to its poor solubility and low bioavailability. Hence, an attempt was made to optimize the preparation of biocompatible resveratrol loaded niosomes (R-niosomes) using non-ionic surfactants and fatty alcohol as stabilizer employing the novel and green method of sonication. R-Niosomes exhibited mean particle size of 108 nm with narrow size distribution (PDI = 0.24) and high zeta potential (−56.8 mV). The niosomes had >80% of resveratrol encapsulated into the vesicles and exhibited controlled release under simulated gastro-intestinal conditions. FTIR, XRD and DSC analyses confirmed successful encapsulation of resveratrol into the vesicles. Assays in macrophage RAW264.7 cell lines showed that R-niosomes had lower cytotoxicity and higher intracellular ROS scavenging activity when compared to resveratrol in its free form. This study demonstrated that nanoencapsulation of resveratrol through niosomes using non-ionic surfactant and fatty alcohol has dramatically improved its solubility and functionality.

The study was conducted to evaluate the potential of infrared thermography (IRT) technique for the early detection of subclinical mastitis in indigenous cows. A total of fifty-six quarters of lactating Bos indicus (Deoni) cows (n = 14) were monitored for ocular surface temperature (OST) and udder skin surface temperature (USST) prior to morning and evening milking using FLIR i5 (forward-looking infrared) camera continuously for 28 days. Milk samples were collected from each quarter and screened for mastitis using Somatic Cell Count (SCC), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and California Mastitis Test (CMT). Thermographic images were analyzed by using FLIR Quick Report 1.2. Data on OST and USST were compiled and analyzed statistically using SPSS 16.0. The mean (±SD) OST (i.e. body temperature) of an individual cow during the study period was 36.10 ± 0.08 °C. The mean (±SD) OST (36.10 ± 0.08 °C) and USST (36.19 ± 0.06 °C) of un-affected cows did not differ significantly, however, the mean (±SD) USST of the subclinical mastitis-affected quarter was 37.61 ± 0.29 °C which was 1.51 °C higher than the body temperature (P 0.95. The maximum udder skin surface temperature of 37.90 was taken and used for the ROC analysis. The ROC curve analysis revealed a higher sensitivity and specificity for difference between OST and USST and their potential for detection of subclinical mastitis with a cut-off value >0.58 °C. Infrared thermal imaging technique could be used as a potential noninvasive, cow-side diagnostic method for screening and detection of subclinical mastitis.

The physicochemical, thermal, pasting and microstructural properties of commercial Curcuma angustifolia starch were analyzed. Scanning electron and light microscopic analyses revealed that the starch granules were polyhedral to round in shape, and were similar to corn starch in appearance. The mean particle diameter was 15.57 μm at 3% moisture, which increased to 16.79 μm at 12% moisture content after adsorbing water. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that the O C stretching band was double-peaked. X-ray diffractogram manifested mostly ‘A’ type crystalline structures, similar to that of arrowroot and corn starches. The NMR spectrum of this starch also resembled closely that of corn starch, with typical resonances at 100, 71–78 and 60 ppm. The moisture sorption isotherms of C. angustifolia starch were sigmoidal shape, with cross over at higher temperature. The glass transition temperature (Tg) decreased linearly from 70.15 °C at 3% moisture content to 64.65 °C at 12% (R2 = 0.985) while the peak gelatinization temperature of starch was 78.2 °C, with an enthalpy of 20.43 J/g. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that 76% of mass loss related to depolymerization of starch occurred between 275 and 345 °C. The derivative curve was single-peaked. Pasting studies showed that C. angustifolia starch showed peak, breakdown and setback viscosities much higher than those of cassava and arrowroot starches. The high phosphorous content conferred high paste viscosity and improved gel strength during pasting.

In this study, flow and flow-related properties namely morphology, angle of repose, moisture sorption, glass transition and sticky point temperature of basundi mix powder were determined. The bulk and tapped densities decreased from 690.71 to 622.71 kg/m3 and 819.10 to 729.31 kg/m3, respectively as moisture content increased from 3 to 9% (d.b.). Cohesiveness, expressed in terms of Hausner ratio and Carr index, increased with increase in moisture content. The sticky point temperature also decreased from about 40 °C at 2% moisture content to 10 °C at 8% moisture content, suggesting that the product was very much susceptible to caking. The basic flow energy values increased from 783.39 kPa at 3% moisture content to 1883.2 kPa at 9% moisture content. Shear tests showed that basundi mix was relatively more flowable at 3% (or less moisture content) than at 9% moisture content. It could be concluded that dynamic flow tests were better in characterizing flowability of basundi mix than static flow indicators such as angle of repose and Hausner ratio. Overall, basundi mix could be classified as a cohesive material, and to have better flowability and less stickiness, this powder is recommended to be stored at

This work is aimed at the use of D‐optimal mixture design to incorporate tikhur (Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.) starch instead of semolina in the preparation of chhana podo (baked milk cake). Quality parameters such as lightness, hardness, moisture content, oven spring, and specific volume were determined, and they were used for optimization of baking conditions. The product prepared from the optimized formulation of 19.2 parts of chhana (milk solids obtained by heat‐acid coagulation of milk at 90°C), 1.8 parts of tikhur starch, and 6 parts of sugar had 39.72% moisture content, 1.09 cm³/g specific volume, 22.43 mm oven spring, 66.37 lightness value, and 29.69 N hardness with desirability factor of 0.896. Further, chhana podo prepared by adding semolina two‐parts (control), one‐, two‐ and three‐parts of tikhur starch were compared for its sensory attributes using fuzzy logic approach. It was used to score the samples for ranking, and also to decipher the preference of the judges for the above quality parameters. Specimens 1, 2, and 3 were rated “Good” by the panelists while Specimen 4 was ranked “Satisfactory.” In general, texture was rated as the strongest quality indicator (Highly Important) for chhana podo with similarity value of 0.956. Moistness, color, and flavor had identical similarity values, and were classed as “Important.” PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chhana podo is a milk cake that is prepared by blending of heat‐acid coagulated milk solids, sugar and semolina into dough, and baking it. Fuzzy analysis, which involves linguistic expression of sensory quality, was used in combination with mixture design to optimize the ingredient composition. Semolina was replaced with tikhur (Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.) starch by using D‐optimal mixture design without any influence on end product quality. Combining fuzzy analysis with mixture design proved to be a good tool for new product development.

Rheological properties play an important role in developing new foods, optimizing their quality and sensory attributes, design of process equipment, etc. Viscosity is closely related to the mouthfeel of milk-based beverages. The objective of this chapter is to review the various flow behavior models for milk beverages, which could yield dynamic viscosity or consistency coefficient. The later part discusses the rheological properties of plain milk and acidified milk beverages such as yogurt types, lassi, doogh, and whey-based beverages. Also, the microstructure and major factors influencing the rheological properties of these beverages are elaborated.

Aim: The objective of this study was to investigate the ability of infrared thermography (IRT) technique and its interrelationship with conventional mastitis indicators for the early detection of mastitis in Holstein Friesian (HF) crossbred cows. Materials and Methods: A total of 76 quarters of lactating HF crossbred (Bos indicus × Bos taurus) cows (n=19) were monitored for body temperature (i.e., eye temperature) and udder skin surface temperature (USST) before milking using forward-looking infrared (FLIR) i5 camera. Milk samples were collected from each quarter and screened for mastitis using Somatic Cell Count (SCC), Electrical Conductivity (EC), and California mastitis test. Thermographic images were analyzed using FLIR Quick Report 1.2 image analysis software. Data on body and USST were compiled and analyzed statistically using SPSS 16.0 and Sigmaplot 11. Results: The mean±standard deviation (SD) body (37.23±0.08°C) and USST (37.22±0.04°C) of non-mastitic cow did not differ significantly; however, the mean USST of the mastitis-affected quarters were significantly higher than the body temperature and USST of unaffected quarters (p37.61°C. Conclusion: It is concluded that infrared thermal imaging technique could be used as a potential noninvasive, quick cow-side diagnostic technique for screening and early detection of SCM and clinical mastitis in crossbred cows.

The animal husbandry and livestock sectors play a major role in the rural economy, especially for the small and marginal farmers. India has the largest livestock population in the world and ranks first in the milk production. Mastitis is the most common and expensive infectious disease in dairy cattle. The global economic losses per year due to mastitis amounts to USD 35 billion and for Indian dairy industry INR 6000 crores per year. Early detection of mastitis is very important to reduce the economic loss to the dairy farmers and dairy industry. Automated methods for early and reliable detection of mastitis are currently in focus under precision dairying. Skin surface temperature is an important indicator for the diagnosis of cow’s illnesses and for the estimation of their physiological status. Infrared thermography (IRT) is a simple, effective, on-site, and noninvasive method that detects surface heat, which is emitted as infrared radiation and generates pictorial images without causing radiation exposure. In human and bovine medicine, IRT is used as a diagnostic tool for assessment of normal and physiological status.

Deep-fat frying (DFF) is the major processing step in preparation of pantoa , a popular Indian dairy sweetmeat. In this study, the dough for pantoa was rolled into balls of 15 g, and fried in sunflower oil at 125, 135 and 145 °C for 8 min. Convective heat transfer coefficient, which defines the heat transfer characteristics of the product during DFF, was determined using one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation as 92.71–332.92 W·m − 2 ·K − 1 . Neurocomputing techniques such as connectionist models and adaptive neurofuzzy inference system (ANFIS) were compared vis-a-vis multiple linear regression (MLR) models for prediction of heat transfer coefficient. A back-propagation algorithm with Bayesian regularization optimization technique was employed to develop connectionist models while the ANFIS model was based on Sugeno-type fuzzy inference system. Both connectionist and ANFIS models exhibited superior prediction abilities than the classical MLR model. Amongst the three approaches, the hybrid ANFIS model with triangular membership function and frying time and temperature as input factors gave the best fit of convective heat transfer coefficient with R 2 as high as 0.9984 (99.84% accuracy) and %RMS value of 0.1649. Industrial relevance Convective heat transfer coefficient defines the heat transfer characteristics of a product during frying. Accurate prediction of heat transfer coefficient is important for design of process equipment and saving energy during commercial production. Developing models to predict heat transfer and the coefficients have been a challenge. Neurocomputing is one of the emerging intelligent technologies with analogies to biological neural systems. Therefore, it has the capability to predict complex relationships in food systems. Neurocomputing approaches such as connectionist and ANFIS models are now widely used in the food industry to predict various engineering properties of food, optimization of various transport processes, unit operations and formulating new products and product characteristics. No attempt has been made to predict the heat transfer coefficient during frying of pantoa . In this study, the convective heat transfer coefficient of pantoa was predicted using connectionist models and ANFIS techniques. These neurocomputing techniques are expected to alleviate the difficulties in conventional heat transfer modeling.

The influence of baking temperature (120–150°C) and time (80–120 min) on selected physico-chemical and textural characteristics of chhana podo were investigated, and the baking conditions were optimized using response surface methodology. Crust and crumb moisture contents, total color difference, hardness, and specific volume were used as quality indices. The face-centered central composite design was used to study the effects of independent factors on the quality attributes. Moisture content decreased with baking temperature and time, while total color difference, hardness, and specific volume increased. The second-order polynomial models predicted the experimental responses adequately (% p

Resveratrol was encapsulated into proniosomes with the aim of enhancing its applications in food. Maltodextrin, lactose monohydrate and pullulan were used as wall materials for the preparation of resveratrol-loaded proniosomes by thin-film hydration technique. The morphological, microstructural, entrapment and release properties were determined. The wall material had marked (p

The objective was to use scrotal infrared digital thermography to evaluate effects of thermal stress on semen quality of Murrah buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) breeding bulls. Ejaculates from 109 Murrah bulls maintained at three semen stations were evaluated for: ejaculate volume, sperm concentration (SCON), initial motility (IM), percent live sperm (LIVE), acrosome integrity of fresh semen (AIFS), plasma membrane integrity of fresh semen (PMIFS), head abnormalities of fresh semen (HAFS), midpiece abnormalities of fresh semen (MPAFS), tail abnormalities of fresh semen (TAFS), post-thaw motility (PTM), acrosome integrity of post-thawed semen (AIPT) and plasma membrane integrity of post-thawed semen (PMIPT). Scrotal and ocular surface temperatures were acquired during rainy, winter and summer seasons, using an FLIR i5 infrared camera. Thermographic images were analyzed with Quick Report 1.2 SP2 software and temperature data acquired. Daily mean temperature and mean relative humidity were used to determine the temperature-humidity index (THI). Environmental factors were analyzed using CORR to determine collinearity among independent variables. There was a high correlation among THI, proximal, mid and distal scrotal temperatures (r ≥ 0.73). Therefore, distal pole temperature (DPT), THI, temperature gradient (TG) and ocular temperature (OcT) were used in the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and in regression analysis of dependent variables. The THI, DPT, TG and OcT had significant influences on sperm abnormalities, acrosome and plasma membrane integrity of fresh as well as post-thawed semen. The TG had significant effects on LIVE and SCON. All semen quality parameters were predicted (regression analysis) as a function of the three independent factors. We concluded that scrotal infrared thermography was useful for assessing influences of thermal stress and environmental factors on characteristics of buffalo semen.

Brown rice flour has been used as a primary ingredient in many food products. The particulate rheology of brown rice flour is illustrated. The grinding procedure, to make brown rice flour, varies based on the locality and availability of milling machines. The chemical and particulate characteristics depend on the flour milling procedure employed. Understanding the particulate rheological behaviour of rice flour is important to design process flow, processing equipment, and storage vessel. A comparative evaluation of the flow properties of brown rice flours milled using a traditional stone mill and a modern hammer mill is described. Discrete properties such as density, dynamic flow, and shear flow behaviour of brown rice flour were determined. The particle size distribution of flours depended on the milling technique. The angle of internal friction (AIF) of stone mill ground flours was higher than that of hammer mill ground flours. The shear test results indicated that the stone mill ground flours had higher cohesiveness than hammer mill ground flour and, thus, had relatively less flowability than hammer mill ground flours. The milling technique influenced the flow properties of the brown rice flours.

Pantoa is a traditional dairy product of the Indian subcontinent. Heat transfer in pantoa during deep-fat frying was evaluated using lumped thermal capacity model and one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation. Moisture and fat transfers were modeled using one-dimensional transient moisture diffusion equation and second order polynomial model, respectively. Lumped thermal capacity model was found to be unsuitable. As the frying temperature increased from 125C to 145C, the heat transfer coefficient obtained from one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation increased from 101.77 to 237.10 W/m2 K, while the moisture transfer coefficient increased from 7.79 × 10−6 to 9.05 × 10−6 m/s. The effective moisture diffusivity varied from 5.55 × 10−8 to 38.8 × 10−8m2/s for the temperature range studied. The moisture diffusivity was affected by frying temperature, and it was described by modified Arrhenius relationship. From the steady decline in Lewis number (2.18 to 0.35) with increase in frying temperature from 125C to 145C, it could be concluded that thermal diffusion was prominent at 125C, which was superseded by moisture diffusion at 145C. Practical Applications Pantoa is a traditional and popular dairy product of the Indian subcontinent. Deep-fat frying of pantoa involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer. In this study, the heat and mass transport during frying were analyzed and modeled. The effects of process temperature and time, on heat and mass transfer properties and diffusivities also were evaluated. The heat and mass transfer models will be useful to optimize the frying process and improve the quality of pantoa.

The equilibrium moisture contents of gulabjamun mix powder were determined at 10, 25 and 40C. The sorption isotherms of gulabjamun mix were of type II, with the sorption capacity decreasing with temperature. The Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer best described the sorption data at all temperatures. The isosteric heat of sorption, sorption entropy, spreading pressure, net integral enthalpy and entropy were determined as a function of moisture content. The isosteric heat of sorption decreased with increasing moisture content, and it approached the latent heat of water at 15% moisture content. A plot of differential heat of sorption versus entropy satisfied the enthalpy–entropy compensation theory. The spreading pressures increased with increasing water activity but decreased with increasing temperature. The net integral enthalpy decreased with moisture content to a minimum value of −0.50 kJ/mol. The isokinetic temperature (Tβ) and harmonic mean temperature (Thm) values were determined as 339.5 and 297.5 K, respectively. Practical Applications The instant gulabjamun mix is a dry and convenient ready-to-use mix with long shelf life. In this study, the moisture sorption behavior and the thermodynamics of sorption of gulabjamun mix are presented. This work could be used as a reference to optimize the final moisture content of this product and specify its appropriate storage conditions. The sorption data will also be useful to predict the shelf life and stability of gulabjamun mix against deteriorative reactions.

Mathematical models were developed for the heat and mass transfer phenomena during deep-fat frying of gulab jamun, a dairy dessert popular throughout the Indian subcontinent. Size, shape, core temperature, moisture and fat contents of the product were monitored at regular intervals during 8 min of frying. The heat transfer was described using both lumped capacity model and transient heat conduction equation. As the calculated Biot number for lumped capacity model was greater than 0.1, the convective heat transfer coefficient was determined using the transient heat conduction equation as 122.34, 116.12 and 94.10 W/(m2 K) at 135, 145 and 155C, respectively. The moisture transport was described using a partial differentiation equation analogous to the transient heat conduction. The moisture transfer coefficient, ranging from 10.41 × 10−6 to 14.35 × 10−6m/s, increased linearly with frying temperature. The Lewis number declined from 0.96 to 0.54 with increasing temperature, indicating that at higher frying temperatures moisture diffusivity gained predominance over thermal diffusivity. Fat uptake of the product followed fractional conversion first-order kinetic model. Practical Applications Gulab jamun, a popular dairy sweet of the Indian subcontinent, is processed by deep-fat frying of milk solids–starch dough balls, followed by soaking them in sugar syrup. Its manufacture is currently dominated by small-scale unorganized enterprises, leading to non-optimized process conditions and widely varying product quality. The present study aims at describing the heat, moisture and fat transfer during the deep-fat frying process of this product using mathematical models. The effects of process parameters, such as temperature and time, on thermal and mass transfer properties and diffusivities were evaluated. Such mathematical models provide information to food processing professionals that help in predicting and optimizing the frying process parameters of gulab jamun in order to achieve maximum energy efficiency and desired product quality.

A mathematical model to predict the shelf life of gulabjamun mix based on moisture-induced spoilage by stickiness (caking) and nonenzymatic browning (NEB) was developed. The moisture adsorption isotherms of gulabjamun were determined at 10, 25 and 40C. The water vapor permeabilities of the packaging materials were also calculated. The critical moisture contents for stickiness and NEB to occur were determined and the moisture-limiting shelf life was predicted. Validation of the prediction model was done by accelerated shelf life testing at 38C and 90% RH. At 4.8% moisture content, the experimental shelf life of gulabjamun mix based on stickiness and NEB was observed respectively as 41 and 54 days in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and 280 and >360 days in polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/Al foil/PET/LDPE pouches. The corresponding predicted values were 34 and 46 days in LDPE and 247 and 342 days in PET/Al foil/PET/LDPE, respectively. The simulation model was fairly accurate and reliable in predicting the shelf life of this product. Practical Applications Stickiness and nonenzymatic browning reactions, induced by moisture gain, affect the shelf life of gulabjamun mix. For dry powders like gulabjamun mix, having a regular shelf life of 6–12 months, accelerated shelf life testing (ASLT) is cumbersome and sometimes unfeasible. Simulation and mathematical modeling of shelf life is an alternative to long-term ASLT. In this study, a model for predicting the shelf life of gulabjamun mix was developed, incorporating the water vapor permeability of the packaging material, the adsorption of moisture from headspace of the package and the weight of moisture in the product. The shelf life prediction will be useful to monitor the product quality and stability against deteriorative reactions. The model could also be used for shelf life estimation of new products in flexible packaging materials.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of non-genetic factors on scrotal thermographic profile viz., proximal pole temperature (PPT °C), mid pole temperature (MPT °C), distal pole temperature (DPT °C) and ocular temperature (OcT) of Murrah (Bubalus bubalis) breeding bulls. A total of 109 buffalo bulls, maintained at three semen stations (SS), were monitored for scrotal surface and ocular temperatures using infrared thermography twice daily during rainy, winter and summer seasons using an FLIR i5 infrared camera and temperatures were measured. Thermograms were analysed by FLIR QuickReport v.1.2 SP2 software. Statistical analysis revealed that semen station, season, temperature humidity index (THI), housing system and timing of observations had significant (P 0.05) effect on scrotal surface temperature (SST) and OcT. In SS-I, the PPT and MPT were significantly (P 0.05) higher as compared to SS-II and SS-III. THI had significant (P 0.05) effect on SST and OcT, whereas PPT (°C), MPT (°C), DPT (°C) and OcT (°C) values during high THI (80.88;0.05) period were higher as compared to medium THI period (70.06-80.88) and during low THI period (70.06). Temperature gradient (TG) of the testes was significantly (P 0.05) higher during low THI period (4.50 ± 0.06 °C) as compared to medium THI (2.38 ± 0.03 °C) and high THI (1.61 ± 0.05 °C). Season of the year had a significant effect (P 0.05) on the SST and OcT. During the rainy season, PPT (34.50 ± 0.09 °C), MPT (33.44 ± 0.12 °C) and DPT (32.11 ± 0.15 °C) were significantly (P 0.05) higher as compared to winter and summer seasons. Age of the bulls had non-significant effect on SST and OcT but had a marked influence on thermal profile of scrotum. It could be concluded semen station, season, temperature humidity index, housing system and timing of observations had a significant influence on scrotal surface temperature. The monitoring of scrotal surface temperature by infrared thermography was found to be useful in evaluating the effects of thermal stress on physiology and health of buffalo bulls.

Moisture sorption isotherms of spray-dried milk-foxtail millet powder were determined at 10, 25 and 40 °C. Sorption data was fitted using classical and soft-computing approaches. The isotherms were of type II, and equilibrium moisture content (EMC) was temperature dependent. The BET monolayer moisture content decreased from 3.30 to 2.67 % as temperature increased from 10 to 40 °C. Amongst the classical models, Ferro-Fontan gave the best fit of EMC-aw data. However, the Sugeno-type adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) with generalized bell-shaped membership function performed better than artificial neural network and classical models with RMSE as low as 0.0099. The isosteric heat of sorption decreased from 150.32 kJ mol(-1) at 1 % moisture content to 44.11 kJ mol(-1) at 15 % moisture. The enthalpy-entropy compensation theory was validated, and the isokinetic and harmonic mean temperatures were determined as 333.1 and 297.5 K, respectively.

Corn starch–low density polyethylene (LDPE) blends, at ratios of 95:5, 90:10 and 85:15, were processed into thin films by either single-step twin-screw extrusion or by a two-step process involving compounding (pelleting) of the ingredients before film formation. The microstructure, X-ray patterns, and the tensile, thermal and water vapor permeability (WVP) properties of the films, prepared by both methods, were evaluated and compared. SEM micrographs of the single-step processed films were characterized by the presence of cracks and a discontinuous interface between starch and LDPE. Consequently, their tensile and WVP properties were impaired. Compounding, on the other hand, improved the dispersion of LDPE on to the starch matrix and the interface between the starch and LDPE phases by lowering the viscosity of the thermoplastic starch (TPS) melt. As a result, the stress transfer between the starch and LDPE phases was improved, enhancing the tensile and water vapor barrier properties of the films considerably. In general, the tensile strengths and moduli increased as the LDPE content increased from 5 to 10%, but then decreased with further increase in LDPE content to 15%. Addition of glycerol decreased the tensile strengths and moduli but did not necessarily improve the tensile strains. Differential scanning calorimetry scans and Fourier-transform infrared spectra did not indicate any significant interactions between the two immiscible polymers even after compounding. Phase separation was observed in the TPS. The water vapor barrier properties of the composites were improved by 7.3–25.4% after compounding, but were adversely affected by glycerol content.

Aging of normal corn starch films processed by extrusion and stored at 20-22 °C and 50-56% RH was investigated over a period of 120 d. The changes in the structural, thermal, tensile, and water vapor permeability (WVP) properties of the films during aging were studied. The thermoplastic starch (TPS) just after extrusion processing (≈4 h) was nearly amorphous in character. However, aging above the T g produced both B- and V-type crystalline structures in the TPS within 3 d of drying. The relative crystalline content of the TPS increased from 2.6 to 17.7%, depending on the glycerol content. Post-processing, the tensile strengths of the films increased by 39.3-134.1% while the tensile strains decreased by 48-81.1%. The rates of change in tensile strength and strain were faster during the first 30 d but stabilized thereafter. The biphasic transitions in the DSC thermograms suggested phase separation in the TPS. The T g of glycerol-rich domains decreased while those of the starch-rich regions increased during storage. The band-narrowing and changes in peak styles and intensities in the 1400-800 cm -1 region of the Fourier transform infrared spectra suggested increases in the crystalline content of the TPS during aging. The WVP values tended to decrease with time as the crystallinity of starch increased and the free volume in the film network decreased.

Native corn starch, plasticized with water, glycerol and stearic acid, was extruded in a conical twin-screw extruder and sheeted into 0.4-0.6 mm thick films. The effects of extrusion and plasticizers on gelatinization, as well as the molecular and structural changes, in thermoplastic starch were analyzed. The onset and peak gelatinization temperatures of extruded starch varied from 42-46°C and 52.9-56.9°C, respectively, depending on the glycerol content. The enthalpy of gelatinization of extruded thermoplastic starch in excess water varied from 3.6-7.6 J/g, which also increased with plasticizer content. Amylose-lipid complexes were formed during extrusion, and their enthalpies depended on the initial stearic acid and moisture contents. High-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) data revealed that the starch underwent fragmentation during extrusion even under highly plasticized conditions, but the degradation was not severe as compared to previous findings. The relative percentages of amylopectin and amylose in native starch were 76.9 and 23.1 %, respectively, which were changed to 71.3-76.6% and 23.4-28.7% in the extrudates. The average molecular weights of amylopectin and amylose in the extrudates ranged from 1.55 x 10 7 -2.07 x 10 7 and 4.35 x 10 5 ―7.39 × 10 5 , respectively. On the other hand, the molecular weights of amylopectin and amylose in native corn starch were observed as 2.27 x 10 7 and 4.68 x 10 5 , respectively. Cross-polarization magical angle spinning (CP/ MAS) and high-power decoupling (HP-DEC) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of thermoplastic starch revealed the characteristics of amylomaize starch, confirming HPSEC results that the amylopectin macromolecules underwent fragmentation into amylose-like fractions. In the extrudates, glycerol was found to be less mobile and entrained within the starch network.

Cornstarch, at 20% moisture content (dry basis, d.b.), was mixed with glycerol at 3:1 ratio to form the base material for extruded starch films. Stearic acid, sucrose and urea, at varying concentrations, were tested as secondary plasticizers for the starch-glycerol mixture. The ingredients were extruded at 110 and 120°C barrel temperatures to determine the effects of extrusion temperature, plasticizer type and their concentrations on the film-forming characteristics of starch, as well as their effects on selected physical and functional properties of the films. The physical and mechanical properties of the films were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and tensile testing, while the glass transition and gelatinization properties were analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The interactions between the functional groups of starch and plasticizers were investigated using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The water vapor permeability (WVP) properties of starch films were determined using ASTM standard E96-95. Scanning electron micrographs exhibited the presence of native and partially melted starch granules in the extruded films. The tensile stress, strain at break and Young's modulus of starch films ranged from 0.9 to 3.2 MPa, 26.9 to 56.2% and 4.5 to 67.7 MPa, respectively. DSC scans displayed two glass transitions in the temperature ranges of 0.1 to 1°C and 9.6 to 12°C. Multiple melting endotherms, including that of amylose-lipid complexes, were observed in the thermoplastic extrudates. The gelatinization enthalpies of the starch in the extruded films varied from 0 to 1.7 J/g, and were dependent largely on the extrusion temperature and plasticizer content. The shift in the FTIR spectral bands, as well as the appearance of double-peaks, suggested strong hydrogen bonding interactions between the starch and plasticizers. The WVP of starch films ranged from 10.9 to 15.7 g mm h-1 m-2 kPa-1, depending on the extrusion temperature and the type of plasticizer used.

Starch and polystyrene (PS) were mixed at 70:30, 80:20, and 85:15 ratios with 0.5 and 1% talc and extruded into loose-fill packaging foams. Azodicarbonamide (ADC), at 0, 0.2, and 0.4 wt %, and citric acid, at 0, 0.25, and 0.5%, were added as blowing agents to enhance the radial expansion and functional properties of foams. As the concentration of ADC in the starch−PS mixtures was increased from 0 to 0.2%, the expansion ratios increased, and consequently the bulk densities decreased. However, with a further increase in the concentration of ADC to 0.4%, the expansion ratios dropped considerably. The effects of citric acid on radial expansion and other properties were similar to those of ADC. Compared to ADC, citric acid produced foams with higher radial expansion and correspondingly lower densities. Extrudates containing citric acid had large-sized cells, but the cell walls were structurally damaged due to degradation of starch. The spring indices of foams treated with various additives were not significant...

Starch-based loose-fi ll packaging foams were made in a single-screw laboratoryscale extruder. Corn starch was blended with polystyrene in the ratio of 70 : 30 and extruded into foams using talc and polycarbonate as additives. Extrusions were carried out at moisture contents of 16, 18 and 20% (dry basis), and at barrel temperatures of 140 and 160oC. The infl uences of extrusion temperature, moisture content of starch, talc and polycarbonate on the radial expansion and other selected physical properties of starch foams were investigated. The effects of moisture and talc contents on the radial expansion of foams were found to be critical, while the role of temperature was close to signifi cant. The expansion ratio increased when the moisture content was increased from 16 to 18%, and then decreased when moisture content was increased to 20%. In general, the expansion ratios of foams were higher at 160oC as compared to 140oC. Although polycarbonate mixed well with the starch– polystyrene melt, it was not effective as a structural and anti-shrinking agent, and it did not contribute to the radial expansion. In general, the bulk densities and unit densities of the starch foams decreased as the moisture content and extrusion temperature increased. Scanning electron microscope images showed that the addition of talc yielded foams with smaller-sized cells, with less expansion of the foam melt, and thus a higher density. X-ray diffractograms revealed that the crystallinity of starch foams increased post-extrusion, and there was adequate dispersion of the starch and polystyrene polymers to make the foam water-resistant. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.