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Lambda-cyhalothrin (LCT) is a common pyrethroid insecticide widely used for ectoparasite control and hygiene pest prevention in poultry and this study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of LCT-induced cardiac injury in chickens. Low, medium, and high-dose LCT exposure models in chickens were established and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, dihydroethidium (DHE) staining, TUNEL staining, immunofluorescence, biochemical analysis, and gene expression analysis were used to study the effects of LCT exposure on the chicken heart. The results showed that LCT exposure increased the serum levels of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), led to muscle fiber breakage and inflammatory cell infiltration and caused cardiac tissue damage. The DHE staining and biochemical analysis revealed that LCT exposure resulted in the excessive accumulation of ROS, decreased activities/levels of catalase (CAT), total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), and glutathione (GSH), and increased levels of the oxidative damage marker malondialdehyde (MDA). The TUNEL staining indicated that LCT exposure increased apoptosis possibly through the elevated expression of pro-apoptotic genes in the mitochondrial pathway, the reduced expression of anti-apoptotic genes, the upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors and the downregulation of anti-inflammatory factors. Here, LCT exposure significantly inhibited the expression of genes in the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and activated the expression of genes in the CYP450 enzyme system. Compared to the low-dose group, the high-dose LCT exposure group showed lower levels of apoptosis and inflammation, possibly related to the low oxidative stress levels mediated by the decreased expression of the CYP450 enzyme system. In conclusion, LCT exposure induces oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation in chicken hearts, which may be associated with the inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and activation of the CYP450 enzyme system. This study provides a theoretical basis for the safer use of insecticides in poultry production., Competing Interests: DISCLOSURES The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

An 11-year-old male neutered American bulldog was presented for evaluation of thrombocytopenia, acute onset of ataxia, and vomiting. A new murmur was auscultated on physical examination. Transthoracic echocardiographic examination revealed a bicuspid aortic valve, vegetative lesions on the aortic valve, and continuous shunting from the aortic root to the left atrium through an aorta to left atrial fistula. The dog was euthanized due to its guarded prognosis and critical condition. Pathological examination confirmed presence of a bicuspid aortic valve, aorto-left atrial fistula, and aortic infective endocarditis. Antemortem blood culture revealed two unusual organisms: Achromobacter xylosoxidans and Fusobacterium mortiferum., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Statement The authors do not have any conflict of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Transport stress (TS) not only weakens poultry performance but also affects animal welfare. Additionally, TS can evoke cardiac damage by triggering sterile inflammation in chicks, but the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we aimed to elucidate how TS induces sterile inflammation and heart injury and to clarify the antagonism effect of astragalus polysaccharides (APS). We randomly divided 60 chicks (one-day-old female) into 5 groups (n = 12): Control_0h (Con_0h) group (chicks were slaughtered at initiation), Control group (stress-free control), TS group (simulated TS exposure for 8 h), TS plus water (TS+W) group, and TS plus APS (TS+APS) group. Before simulation transport, the chicks of TS+W and TS+APS groups were, respectively, dietary with 100 μL of water or APS (250 μg/mL). H&E staining was employed for cardiac histopathological observation. ELISA assay was used to measure oxidative stress marker levels (GSH, GPX, GST, and MDA). A commercial kit was used to isolate the mitochondrial portion, and qRT-PCR was employed to measure the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) levels. Furthermore, we evaluated the activity of mtDNA-mediated NF-κB, NLRP3 inflammasome, and cGAS-STING inflammatory pathways and the expression of downstream inflammatory factors by Western Blotting or qRT-PCR. Our findings revealed that APS notably relieved TS-induced myocardial histopathological lesions and infiltrations. Likewise, the decrease in proinflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and IFN-β by APS further supported this result. Meanwhile, TS caused severe oxidative stress in the chick heart, as evidenced by decreased antioxidant enzymes and increased MDA. Importantly, APS prevented mtDNA stress and leakage by reducing oxidative stress. Interestingly, TS-induced mtDNA leakage caused a series of inflammation events via mtDNA-PRRs pathways, including TLR21-NF-κB, NLRP3 inflammasome, and cGAS-STING signaling. Encouragingly, all these adverse changes related to inflammation events induced by mtDNA-PRRs activation were all relieved by APS treatment. In summary, our findings provide the first evidence that inhibition of mtDNA-PRRs pathway-mediated sterile inflammation by APS could protect against TS-induced cardiac damage in chicks., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A dog was presented for lameness, fever, and extreme lethargy. On physical exam, a new heart murmur, arrhythmia, and joint effusion were detected. These findings were not detected two months prior. A diagnostic work-up confirmed septic suppurative inflammation in multiple joints. Echocardiogram revealed aortic valvular endocarditis along with a communication, as a consequence of a fistula, that extended from just below the aortic sinotubular junction to the left atrial lumen. Due to a poor prognosis, humane euthanasia was elected. Necropsy and histopathology confirmed infective endocarditis of the aortic valve and an aorto-left atrial fistulous tract extending from the left coronary sinus of the aortic valve to the lumen of left atrium., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Aortocardiac fistula is a broad term used to describe defects between the aorta and other cardiac chambers that can occur in humans and animals. A 1.5-year-old, 1.7 kg, male castrated Holland lop rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was presented for a two-week history of a heart murmur with corresponding cardiomegaly on radiographs. Physical examination confirmed a grade-V/VI continuous heart murmur on the right sternal border with a regular rhythm and a gallop sound. Echocardiography revealed an aortic-to-right-atrial fistula causing severe left-sided volume overload. Based on the echocardiographic findings, rupture of the right aortic sinus was suspected. Due to the poor prognosis, euthanasia was elected. On necropsy, a fistula was found connecting the right aortic sinus with the right atrium, without evidence of an inflammatory response nor evidence of an infectious etiology. The sudden onset of a heart murmur supported acquired fistulation from a ruptured aortic sinus (also known as the sinus of Valsalva), though a congenital malformation could not be completely excluded., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare no conflict of interest related to this work., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe the clinical and diagnostic findings and outcome of cats with bicavitary effusion presenting to a referral centre., Methods: Medical records of cats presenting with bicavitary effusion were identified and their history, physical examination findings, clinicopathological data, diagnostic imaging findings, aetiology of bicavitary effusions (cardiac disease, neoplasia, infectious disease, sterile inflammatory disease, severe hypoalbuminaemia, trauma, coagulopathy or 'open' if no definitive diagnosis was reached) and outcome were recorded. Cox regression analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of death in cats with bicavitary effusion. Kaplan-Meier curves were generated for survival analysis., Results: In total, 103 cats with bicavitary effusion were included. Neoplasia and cardiac disease were the most common aetiologies of bicavitary effusion, in 21 (20.4%) and 20 (19.4%) cats, respectively, followed by infectious disease (n = 11, 10.7%), trauma (n = 13, 12.6%), hypoalbuminaemia (n = 6, 5.8%), sterile inflammatory disease (n = 4, 3.9%) and coagulopathy (n = 1, 1.0%). The median survival time for all cats with bicavitary effusion was 3 days. Cats with a neoplastic aetiology had a 2.03 times greater risk of death compared with cats in which no diagnosis was achieved. Neoplasia ( P  = 0.030) and pedigree breed status ( P  = 0.016) were independent predictors of death in the multivariable Cox regression model., Conclusions and Relevance: This study highlights that bicavitary effusions in cats generally carry a guarded to poor prognosis, particularly if neoplasia is the underlying aetiology or if the cat is a pedigree breed. Cardiac disease appeared to be associated with a better prognosis, suggesting that assessment for congestive heart failure should be considered early when evaluating cats with bicavitary effusion. The prognosis for cats with feline infectious peritonitis is likely to be markedly improved by the advent of novel antiviral drugs, compared with the historical cohort of cats presented here., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to describe the frequency of arrhythmias detected in unsedated feline patients from general practice settings., Animals: A total 10,638 feline electrocardiograms (ECGs) were retrospectively collected of which 9440 met the inclusion criteria., Methods: Recordings were evaluated by a board-certified cardiologist. If an arrhythmia was present in the ECG tracing, the cardiologist categorized the arrhythmia using pre-established keywords., Results: At least one arrhythmia was observed in 249 cases (2.64%, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.34-2.98, 249/9440), with the most common arrhythmia encountered being ventricular premature complexes (1.63%, 95% CI: 1.39%-1.91%, 154/9440). Ragdoll cats had the highest odds of arrhythmia (odds ratio (OR): 3.17, 95% CI: 1.43-6.17, P=0.036). Both geriatric (Age: 13+ years, OR: 1.70, 95% CI: 1.24-2.34, P=0.013) and senior (Age: 10-13 years, OR: 1.68, 95% CI: 1.19-2.37, P=0.003) cats had higher odds of having an arrhythmia than adult cats. The odds of male cats having an arrhythmia were slightly higher than female (OR: 1.36, 95% CI: 1.06-1.76, P=0.018)., Conclusions and Relevance: Of the 9440 ECGs included in this study, at least one arrhythmia was detected in 249 distinct cases. Arrhythmias were more common in older cats, male cats and the Ragdoll cat breed. While it is important to note that the presence of an arrhythmia alone does not always indicate the presence of heart disease, further research on the association between breed cardiac health is needed., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Statement All the authors except AHE, ELC, and DAG are employed by IDEXX., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The American Heartworm Society medical protocol represents the current standard of therapy for canine heartworm disease without caval syndrome. However, data on the tolerability of this protocol are limited. This study aimed to describe efficacy and prevalence of possible treatment-related side effects in dogs with heartworm disease treated using the American Heartworm Society protocol., Materials and Methods: For this retrospective multi-centre cohort study, dogs diagnosed with classes 1 to 3 heartworm disease that completed the American Heartworm Society medical protocol were searched in four medical databases. Demographic, clinical, diagnostic, therapeutic and outcome data, including the number and type of possible treatment-related side effects, were retrieved., Results: Thirty-five dogs were included. The median age and bodyweight were 6 years (1 to 13 years) and 17.3 kg (4.9 to 50 kg), respectively. Heartworm disease was classified as classes 1, 2 and 3 in 20 of 35, 11 of 35 and four of 35 dogs, respectively. In addition to the therapeutic recommendations of the American Heartworm Society, eight of 35 dogs underwent sedation to favour melarsomine administration, and 30 of 35 received ice at the injection site. After adulticide therapy, all dogs were hospitalised with cage rest [median time 12 hours (6 to 48 hours)]. All dogs survived the treatment. All dogs with long-term follow-up (32/35) became negative. Furthermore, treatment-related side effects were rare, mild and rapidly recovered without the need for supporting therapies; these included depression/lethargy (4/35 dogs), cough (2/35 dogs) and lameness, pain and gastrointestinal signs (1/35 dog each)., Clinical Significance: The American Heartworm Society medical protocol is efficient and safe in dogs with classes 1 to 3 heartworm disease., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Small Animal Practice published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Small Animal Veterinary Association.)

Background: Eosinophilic effusions are commonly defined as effusions with ≥10% eosinophils. Eosinophilic cavitary effusions are infrequently observed in cats, with few case reports comprising the majority of the recent literature., Objective: The objective was to review disease associations of cats with eosinophilic cavitary effusions and to assess if a lower threshold of eosinophils (5%-9%) may warrant consideration of similar etiologies associated with effusions with ≥10% eosinophils., Methods: Cytology reports were retrospectively reviewed for all feline cavitary effusions submitted for fluid analysis from 2010 to 2020 at a veterinary teaching hospital. Cases were included if the manual leukocyte differential included ≥5% eosinophils and separated into 5%-9% and ≥10% eosinophils groups. Patient records were reviewed for associated medical conditions., Results: A total of 669 effusions were submitted from 579 cats; 50 effusions from 48 cats had a leukocyte differential with ≥5% eosinophils. The eosinophil proportion was ≥10% in 22 cats; the most common underlying cause was neoplasia (10/22, 45%), followed by inflammatory disease (4/22, 18%), cardiac disease (3/22, 14%), suspect neoplasia (3/22, 14%), and undetermined (2/22, 9%). The underlying causes for the 26 cats with 5%-9% eosinophils were similar; neoplasia (8/26, 31%), cardiac disease (6/26, 23%), inflammatory disease (4/26, 15%), suspect neoplasia (3/26, 12%), undetermined (3/26, 12%), and idiopathic chylothorax (2/26, 8%). Cats with eosinophil proportions ≥10% in the fluid exhibited peripheral eosinophilia more frequently (35%) compared to those with 5%-9% eosinophils (5%)., Conclusions: Consistent with the current literature, neoplasia, particularly lymphoma, remains a primary consideration for cats with eosinophilic effusions. Previously unreported associated diseases included cardiovascular and inflammatory disorders. Our findings suggest an eosinophil differential of 5%-9% is seen with similar etiologies considered for classically defined eosinophilic effusions., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Clinical Pathology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology.)

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most important and prevalent cardiac disease in cats. Due to the highly variable nature of HCM, a multimodal approach including physical examination, genetic evaluation, cardiac biomarkers, and imaging are all essential elements to appropriate and timely diagnosis. These foundational elements are advancing rapidly in veterinary medicine. Newer biomarkers such as galectin-3 are currently being researched and advances in tissue speckle-tracking and contrast-enhanced echocardiography are readily available. Advanced imaging techniques, such as cardiac MRI, are providing previously unavailable information about myocardial fibrosis and paving the way for enhanced diagnostic capabilities and risk-stratification in cats with HCM., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Pimobendan is an important therapy for dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD). The pharmacokinetics are reported in healthy dogs but not in dogs with heart disease., Hypothesis/objectives: To determine if dog characteristics such as age, breed, body condition score, ACVIM stage of heart disease or biochemical laboratory value alter the pharmacokinetics of orally administered pimobendan and its metabolite in a cohort of dogs with naturally occurring MMVD., Animals: Fifty-seven client-owned dogs with MMVD ACVIM Stage B2, C, or D and administered pimobendan to steady state blood concentrations., Methods: Prospective, observational study. Samples were collected using a sparse-sampling protocol at specific intervals after administration of pimobendan. Plasma pimobendan and the active metabolite (O-desmethyl-pimobendan, ODMP) concentrations were determined via high-pressure liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection. Data was analyzed via a population pharmacokinetic approach and nonlinear mixed effects modeling (NLME). Numerous covariates were examined in the NLME model., Results: The absorption and elimination half-lives (t 1/2 ) were approximately 1.4 and 1 hour for pimobendan and 1.4 and 1.3 hours for ODMP, respectively. Pharmacokinetic parameters were highly variable, especially the values for pimobendan absorption and elimination rate, and absorption rate of ODMP with coefficients of variation of 147.84%, 64.51% and 64.49%, respectively. No covariate evaluated was a significant source of variability., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: The pharmacokinetic parameters were highly variable among this group of dogs with MMVD. The variability was not associated with the dog's age, body weight or condition score, stage of heart disease, dose, serum creatinine, or alkaline phosphatase., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Background: Heart failure-associated hypochloremia can be depletional from diuretics or dilutional from water retention. Serum osmolality reflects water balance but has not been evaluated in dogs with heart disease., Hypothesis: To determine if serum osmolality is related to heart disease stage and amount of mathematical correction of serum chloride (Cl - ) concentrations in healthy dogs and dogs with myxomatous mitral valve degeneration (MMVD)., Animals: Seventy-seven dogs (20 healthy, 25 Stage B MMVD, 32 Stage C/D MMVD)., Methods: Serum Cl - concentrations were mathematically corrected. Osmolality was calculated (calOsm) and directly measured by freezing point depression (dmOsm) and compared by Bland-Altman analysis. Biochemical variables and osmolality were compared among healthy, Stage B, and Stage C/D dogs. Correlations were explored between osmolality and biochemical variables. Median and range are presented. P < .05 was considered significant., Results: The calOsm was different among groups (P = .003), with Stage B (310 mOsm/kg; 306, 316) and C/D dogs (312 mOsm/kg; 308, 319) having higher calOsm than healthy dogs (305 mOsm/kg; 302, 308). Osmolality methods were moderately correlated (P < .0001, r s  = .46) but with proportional bias and poor agreement. The amount of Cl - correction was negatively correlated with calOsm (P < .0001, r s  = -.78) and dmOsm (P = .004, r s  = -.33). Serum bicarbonate concentration was negatively correlated with Cl - (P < .0001, r s  = -.67)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Dogs with Stage B and Stage C/D heart disease had higher calOsm than healthy dogs. Osmolality was inversely related to the amount of Cl - correction, which supports its use in assessing relative body water content. Poor agreement between calOsm and dmOsm prevents methodological interchange., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Dirofilaria immitis, the mosquito-borne agent of dirofilariosis, a chronic and sometimes fatal cardiopulmonary canine disease, is endemic in most warm and temperate regions in the world. The efficacy of an oral endectoparasiticide product (test product or TP) combining moxidectin, afoxolaner, and pyrantel pamoate was evaluated for the prevention of heartworm disease in dogs, in two laboratory and one field studies. In each laboratory study, 20 D. immitis-naïve beagle dogs were experimentally infected with D. immitis. Ten control dogs were sham-treated, and ten dogs were administered the TP targeting the minimum effective dose, six times monthly and starting 30 days post infection. At necropsy seven months after inoculations, no heartworms were found in any of the TP treated dog, whereas 19 to 42 live heartworms were found in the control dogs. In each study, treatment efficacy was 100% and the difference between treated and untreated groups was highly significant (p < 0.0001). A field study was conducted through the full transmission season in several heartworm-endemic regions of the United States. One hundred and twenty client-owned dogs that were negative for D. immitis at enrollment were administered twelve monthly oral doses of the TP at label dose. Blood tests for D. immitis antigen and modified Knott's tests for microfilariae remained negative through the full duration of the study, demonstrating that all dogs were protected from heartworm infection during the full transmission season. These studies demonstrated that TP administered monthly for at least six doses is effective at preventing dirofilariosis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors are either employees or contractors of Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is considered the gold standard biomarker for myocardial injury and shows a high degree of homology between humans and dogs. The ADVIA Centaur XP High-Sensitivity Troponin I (AC-cTnI-HS) assay has been validated for use in humans but not dogs. The study objectives were to analytically validate the AC-cTnI-HS assay in dogs, to assess correlation between the AC-cTnI-HS and a previous ADVIA Centaur TnI-Ultra (AC-cTnI-U) assay, to assess cTnI sample storage stability, and to clinically evaluate the AC-cTnI-HS assay in healthy dogs and dogs with cardiac disease. Canine serum samples were used for analytical validation. Intra- and inter-assay variability, dilutional parallelism, and spiking recovery were assessed. Samples from 196 client-owned dogs were evaluated (healthy dogs (n = 39) or dogs with congenital heart disease (n = 54), myxomatous mitral valve disease (n = 68), dilated cardiomyopathy (n = 15), or myocarditis (n = 20)). Inter- and intra-assay coefficient of variation (%CV) was between 2.8-41.4% and 3.8-30.2%, respectively, with pools with concentrations >20 pg/mL all having %CVs <10%. The observed to expected ratios for dilutional parallelism and spiking recovery experiments ranged between 92.3 and 266.7.0% and 84.3 and 108%, respectively. A strong correlation between the AC-cTnI-HS and AC-cTnI-U assays was observed (Spearman's ρ = 0.927), though a proportional bias existed, with AC-cTnI-HS assay concentrations being proportionally lower than AC-cTnI-U assay concentrations. Serum samples stored at -80°C had stable cTnI measurements for up to 2.7 years and after a single freeze-thaw cycle. Healthy dogs and dogs with congenital heart disease had significantly lower cTnI concentrations than dogs in the other three groups. The AC-cTnI-HS assay precisely, reproducibly, and accurately measures cTnI concentrations in dog serum with cTnI concentrations >20 pg/mL., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Wesselowski et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Background: Nonhemorrhagic ascites (NHA) can be caused by cardiac diseases (cNHA) and noncardiac diseases (ncNHA). N-terminal brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), cardiac troponin-I (cTnI), and point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) may differentiate between cNHA and ncNHA., Hypothesis/objectives: We compared NT-proBNP and cTnI concentrations as well as POCUS findings in dogs presented with cNHA and ncNHA., Animals: Dogs (n = 60) were enrolled based on identification of NHA with an effusion packed cell volume < 10%., Methods: Blood samples were collected and POCUS was performed on all dogs. Dogs were diagnosed with cNHA (n = 28) or ncNHA (n = 32) based on echocardiography. The cNHA group was subdivided into cardiac non-pericardial disease (n = 17) and pericardial disease (n = 11)., Results: The NT-proBNP concentration (median; range pmol/L) was significantly higher in the cNHA group (4510; 250-10 000) compared to the ncNHA group (739.5; 250-10 000; P = .01), with a sensitivity of 53.8% and specificity of 85.7% using a cut-off of 4092 pmol/L. The NT-proBNP concentrations were significantly higher in the cardiac non-pericardial disease group (8339; 282-10 000) compared with the pericardial disease group (692.5; 250-4928; P = .002). A significant difference in cTnI concentration (median; range ng/L) between the cNHA group (300; 23-112 612) and ncNHA group (181; 17-37 549) was not detected (P = .41). A significantly higher number of dogs had hepatic venous and caudal vena cava distension in the cNHA group compared to the ncNHA group, respectively (18/28 vs 3/29, P < .0001 and 13/27 vs 2/29, P < .001). Gall bladder wall edema was not significantly different between groups (4/28 vs 3/29, P = .74)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: NT-proBNP concentration and POCUS help distinguish between cNHA and ncNHA., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

A 2-year-old spayed female Labrador Retriever with clinical signs of heart failure presented to necropsy with a pericardial defect with most of the left ventricle non-reducibly herniated into the pleural space. The herniated cardiac tissue was constricted by a ring of pericardium that allowed subsequent infarction, evidenced by a marked depression on the epicardial surface. A congenital defect was considered more likely than a traumatic cause, since the margin of the pericardial defect was smooth and fibrous. Histologically, the herniated myocardium was acutely infarcted while the epicardium at the defect margin was markedly compressed, including the coronary vessels. This appears to be the first report of ventricular cardiac herniation with incarceration and infarction (strangulation) in a dog. Similar cardiac strangulations may rarely occur in humans with congenital pericardial defects or acquired pericardial defects secondary to blunt trauma or thoracic surgery., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: Abnormally high serum cardiac troponin I (cTnI) concentration, reflecting leakage from or necrosis of cardiomyocytes, is a negative prognosticator for death in dogs., Objectives: To investigate in critically ill cats whether serum cTnI concentration is abnormally high, identify conditions associated with abnormally high cTnI concentrations, and evaluate cTnI as an independent prognosticator for death and a potential coprognosticator to the acute patient physiologic and laboratory evaluation (APPLE) score in cats., Animals: One hundred nineteen cats admitted to intensive care units (ICU) and 13 healthy cats at 2 university teaching hospitals., Methods: Prospective study. Clinical examinations were performed, APPLE scores calculated, and serum cTnI and serum amyloid A (SAA) measured within 24 hours after admission. Outcome was defined as death/euthanasia or survival to discharge, 28 and 90 days after ICU-admission. Prognostic capacity of cTnI, APPLE scores and models combining cTnI and scores were evaluated by receiver-operator-characteristic analyses., Results: Median (IQR) serum cTnI concentration was higher in ill (0.63 [0.18-2.65] ng/mL) compared to healthy (0.015 [0.005-0.041] ng/mL) cats (P < .001) and higher in subgroups with structural cardiac disease (2.05 [0.54-16.59] ng/mL; P < .001) or SAA >5 mg/L (0.84 [0.23-2.81] ng/mL; P = .009) than in cats without these characteristics (0.45 [0.12-1.70] and 0.35 [0.015-0.96] ng/mL). The in-hospital case fatality rate was 29%. Neither serum cTnI concentration for all critically ill cats (area-under-the-curve 0.567 [95% CI 0.454-0.680], n = 119) or subgroups (0.625 [0.387-0.863], n = 27; 0.506 [0.360-0.652], n = 86), nor APPLE scores (fast 0.568 [0.453-0.682], full 0.585 [0.470-0.699], n = 100), were significant prognosticators for death., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Abnormally high serum cTnI concentration was common in critically ill cats. Unlike in dogs, cTnI did not confer prognostic information regarding death., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Left atrial (LA) volumes using a monoplane Simpson's Method of Discs (SMOD) can be obtained from the right parasternal long axis four-chamber (RPLA) or from the left apical four-chamber (LA4C) views in dogs; however, little information exists regarding the agreement of LA volume estimates using a SMOD on images obtained from LA4C and RPLA views. Therefore, we sought to examine the agreement between the two methods of obtaining LA volumes in a heterogenous population of healthy and diseased dogs. Additionally, we compared the LA volumes obtained by SMOD with estimates obtained from simple cube or sphere volume formulae. Archived echocardiographic examinations were retrieved and, where both RPLA and LA4C views were adequately recorded, included in the study. We obtained measurements from 194 dogs that were either apparently healthy (n = 80) or had various cardiac diseases (n = 114). The LA volumes of each dog was measured using a SMOD, from both views, in systole and diastole. Estimates of LA volumes obtained from simple cube or sphere volume formulae from RPLA-derived LA diameters were also calculated. We then used Limits of Agreement analysis to determine agreement between the estimates obtained with each view, and those calculated from linear dimensions. The two methods obtained by SMOD provided similar estimates for both systolic and diastolic volumes but did not agree sufficiently to be interchangeable. The LA4C view often slightly underestimated the LA volumes at small LA sizes and overestimated the LA volumes at large LA sizes compared to RPLA method, with increasing disagreement as the LA size increased. Estimates based on cube method overestimated volumes compared to both SMOD methods, whereas those based on sphere method performed reasonably. Our study suggests that monoplane volume estimates from the RPLA and LA4C views are similar but not interchangeable. Clinicians can also perform a rough estimate of LA volumes using RPLA-derived LA diameters to calculate the sphere volume., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement None of the authors has any financial or personal relationships that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of the paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Thoracic radiography is commonly used to assess the size of the heart and diagnose cardiac disease in ferrets. Several standardized radiographic heart size indicators have been introduced in this species and values in healthy ferrets have been reported. To date, none of these indicators has been tested in ferrets with cardiac disease. The aim of this prospective and retrospective, analytical observational design study was to assess the accuracy of the modified vertebral heart score (mVHS) and the cardio-vertebral ratio (CVR) in the radiographic detection of cardiomegaly in ferrets. Thoracic radiographs of 24 ferrets with confirmed heart diseases, 22 ferrets with non-cardiac diseases and normal-sized hearts on echocardiogram, and 24 healthy ferrets were mixed and examined by three independent and blinded radiologists who measured mVHS and CVR in right lateral (RL) and ventrodorsal (VD) radiographs. For all readers, ferrets with cardiac disease had significantly higher mVHS and CVR than ferrets without cardiac disease on echocardiography. Optimal cut-points for predicting cardiac enlargement were 6.25 vertebrae and 7.25 vertebrae for RL-mVHS and VD-mVHS, and 1.58 and 1.80 for RL-CVR and VD-CVR, respectively. Using these cut-points, the accuracy was good for indicators measured in RL radiographs (92.9% for RL-mVHS; 91.4% for RL-CVR) and moderate for indicators measured in VD radiographs (88.6% for VD-mVHS; 85.7% for VD-CVR). Findings supported the use of mVHS and CVR for evaluating the size of the heart in diseased ferrets, with caution in values interpretation when pericardial fat prevents precise delineation of the cardiac silhouette contour especially on VD radiographs., (© 2022 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

The cardiac conduction system was examined histologically in 13 canine cases of atrioventricular (AV) valve endocardiosis with third-degree AV block. In all cases, gross examination revealed marked thickening and distortion of the base of the central fibrous body (CFB) and varying degrees of endocardial thickening of the upper portion of the ventricular septum (VS) as well as marked thickening of the mitral and tricuspid valve leaflets due to myxomatous degeneration. Microscopically, the thickened and distorted CFB had encased or trapped, either partly or totally, the underlying penetrating and branching portions of the AV bundle. The myxomatous and/or fibrofatty tissue, which had proliferated at the base of the extensive CFB, protruded into or encroached on the AV bundle, causing severe (51-75%) to very severe (76% or more) reduction of the conduction fibres. The upper portions of the left and right bundle branches were involved in the endocardial thickening due to degenerative and fibrotic changes at the uppermost VS; however, both bundle branches were much less severely affected than the AV bundle, the degree of reduction of the conduction fibres ranging from mild (25% or less) to moderate (26-50%). These observations suggest that the sites most vulnerable to lesions in the AV conduction system are the penetrating and branching portions of the AV bundle, which would represent the anatomical basis for third-degree AV block in canine cases of AV valve endocardiosis., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Heart disease is the leading cause of death in humans and evidence suggests early life growth-restriction increases heart disease risk in adulthood. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the effects of low birth weight (LBW) and postnatal restricted nutrition (RN) on cardiac function in neonatal pigs. We hypothesized that LBW and RN would reduce cardiac function in pigs but this effect would be reversed with refeeding. To investigate this hypothesis, pigs born weighing <1.5 kg were assigned LBW, and pigs born >1.5 kg were assigned normal birth weight (NBW). Half the LBW and NBW pigs underwent ~25% total nutrient restriction via intermittent suckling (assigned RN) for the first 4 wk post-farrowing. The other half of piglets were allowed unrestricted suckling access to the sow (assigned NN). At 28 d of age (weaning), pigs were weaned and provided ad libitum access to a standard diet. Echocardiographic, vascular ultrasound, and blood pressure (BP) measurements were performed on day 28 and again on day 56 to assess cardiovascular structure and function. A full factorial three-way ANOVA (NN vs. RN, LBW vs. NBW, male vs. female) was performed. Key findings include reduced diastolic BP (P = 0.0401) and passive ventricular filling (P = 0.0062) in RN pigs at 28 d but this was reversed after refeeding. LBW piglets have reduced cardiac output index (P = 0.0037) and diastolic and systolic wall thickness (P = 0.0293 and P = 0.0472) at 56 d. Therefore, cardiac dysfunction from RN is recovered with adequate refeeding while LBW programs irreversible cardiac dysfunction despite proper refeeding in neonatal pigs., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Animal Science.)

Raccoon dogs ( Nyctereutes procyonoides koreensis ), which belong to the Canidae family, are the second most injured wildlife animals rescued by the Gangwon Wildlife Medical Rescue Center. Various imaging evaluation methods including echocardiography have been developed, but thoracic radiography remains essential for the diagnosis and management of heart disease in dogs. In particular, vertebral heart scale (VHS) measurement is usually used to evaluate the dimensions of the heart silhouette on thoracic radiographs and can measure cardiomegaly more objectively. The VHS of 50 raccoon dogs without cardiac diseases were measured using thoracic radiography in right lateral (RL) and ventrodorsal (VD) recumbent positions. The VHS in the RL view of 50 raccoon dogs was 9.03 ± 0.52 vertebrae (v), which was slightly smaller than the VHS measured in the VD view of 46 raccoon dogs (9.79 ± 0.84 v). In addition, the thoracic morphology of raccoon dogs was determined to be intermediate (thoracic depth-to-width ratio, 0.75-1.25), and thoracic morphology, gender, and weight were not significantly correlated with VHS. The VHS of raccoon dogs in this study will help veterinarians diagnose potential cardiac diseases in raccoon dogs.

Objectives: The aims of this study were to describe the radiographic features of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema (CPE) in a large group of cats with left-sided cardiac disease, and to determine the association between the radiographic features of CPE and the underlying cardiac disease., Methods: Thoracic radiographs of cats with CPE and echocardiographic evidence of left-sided cardiac disease and left atrial enlargement (LAE) were reviewed, and cardiac silhouette, pulmonary vessels and pulmonary parenchyma evaluation were performed. Interstitial and/or alveolar patterns were classified according to their distribution (ie, diffuse, multifocal or focal) and location (ie, craniodorsal, cranioventral, caudodorsal, caudoventral and perihilar). A Student's t -test and Mann-Whitney U-test, or the two-proportion z-test, were used to compare continuous or categorical variables, respectively, between cats affected by the two most represented cardiac diseases, namely hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM)., Results: Seventy-one cats were included; among them, 46 (64.7%) and 13 (18.3%) had presented for HCM and RCM, respectively. Subjective and objective cardiomegaly, and subjective and objective LAE were detected in 97.2% and 91.9% of cats and in 80.3% and 40.6% of cats, respectively. Pulmonary artery abnormalities, in particular caudal pulmonary artery dilation, were found in 77.5% of cats. Pulmonary artery to pulmonary vein ratio = 1 was found in 71.8% and 55% cats on right lateral and ventrodorsal or dorsoventral views, respectively. Interstitial (57.8%) and mixed interstitial-alveolar (38%) pattern, multifocal (84.5%) and symmetrical (75%) distribution with prevalent ventrocaudal (65.6% of cats) and ventrocranial (60.9% of cats) locations were most frequently observed. No difference was found for any of these radiographic features between cats with HCM and RCM., Conclusions and Relevance: Moderate-to-severe cardiomegaly and LAE, caudal pulmonary artery and vein dilation, as well as a ventral, multifocal and symmetrical interstitial pulmonary pattern, were the main radiographic features of CPE in evaluated cats. Underlying cardiac disease did not influence the aforementioned radiographic features.

This study investigated the association between caudal vena cava (CVC) size and circulatory dynamics in dogs using computed tomography (CT) under general anesthesia. The subjects were 104 dogs who had undergone CT under general anesthesia in the past. The ratio of short diameter of the CVC to aortic diameter (CVC S /Ao) and the ratio of long to short diameter of the CVC (CVC L /CVC S ) in the thorax and abdomen, respectively, were calculated using factors such as mean blood pressure (MBP), shock index (SI), anemia, hypoproteinemia, presence of intra-abdominal mass, and cardiac disease. There was a significant but negligible negative correlation between CVC S /Ao and MBP. In contrast, no significant correlation was found between CVC size and SI. The low MBP group had significantly higher CVC S /Ao of the thorax than the normal MBP group. The group with intra-abdominal mass had significantly lower CVC S /Ao of the abdomen than the group without intra-abdominal mass. The group with cardiac disease had significantly lower CVC L /CVC S of the thorax than the group without cardiac disease. In multiple regression analysis, low MBP, cardiac disease, intra-abdominal mass, and anemia were significant factors for CVC S /Ao of the thorax, CVC L /CVC S of the thorax, CVC S /Ao of the abdomen, and CVC L /CVC S of the abdomen, respectively. In conclusion, CVC size assessment using CT in dogs under general anesthesia is influenced by various factors.

Poisoning by avocado (Persea americana) has been confirmed in sheep, goats, dogs, rabbits and ostriches. The clinical signs and lesions are attributed to the acetogenin, persin. Little is known regarding the epidemiology, clinical signs, lesions and therapy caused by acetogenin-induced heart damage. During the two-year study, we investigated a horse farm with six horses that often fed themselves with P. americana leaves or mature fruit pulp and skin on the ground. Two horses died, and one underwent necropsy, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry using the anti-cardiac troponin C (cTnC). Grossly and histopathologically, there was severe cardiac fibroplasia. Immunohistochemically, there was a multifocal decrease or negative expression in the cTnC cardiomyocytes' cytoplasm. Persea americana leaves were confirmed in the alimentary tract using botanical anatomy and molecular techniques. The chemical investigation by (LC-ESI-MS) revealed the presence of the acetogenins, persin and avocadene 1-acetate from P. americana. Persin was present in leaves and fruits (seed and pulp), while avocadene 1-acetate was found in leaves and fruits (seed, peel, and pulp) with a higher concentration in the pulp. Four other horses have been examined by electrocardiogram, echocardiogram and serum Troponin 1 (cTnI). To establish a causal effect of consumption of P. Americana and heart fibroplasia in horses, long-time experiments must be carried out., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The aim of the study was to determine whether cardiogenic pleural effusion in cats is associated with a lower risk of arterial thromboembolism (ATE) compared with cats with cardiac disease without evidence of pleural effusion., Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on owned cats with natural occurring cardiac diseases. Cats included were classified in three groups: those with cardiac disease but no evidence of congestive heart failure (CHF); those with evidence of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema; and those with evidence of cardiogenic pleural effusion. Prevalence of ATE was calculated and the variables analysed for an association with this outcome were the presence and type of CHF, sex and neuter status, age, breed, type of cardiac diseases and left atrial (LA) dimension. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to fit the association between ATE and these variables., Results: A total of 366 cats with cardiac disease met the inclusion criteria: 179 were included in the group with cardiac disease but no evidence of CHF, 66 in the group with evidence of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema and 121 in the group with evidence of cardiogenic pleural effusion. Prevalence of ATE (58/366 [15.8%]) was significantly different among groups (with no evidence of CHF, 28/179 [15.6%]; with evidence of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, 22/66 [33.3%]; with evidence of cardiogenic pleural effusion, 8/121 [6.6%]; P <0.001). Cats with ATE had a significantly higher LA to aortic root ratio (2.30 ± 0.46) than those without ATE (2.04 ± 0.46; P <0.001). Multivariable logistic regression analysis indicated that the group with evidence of cardiogenic pleural effusion was associated with a lower risk of developing ATE compared with groups with cardiac disease but no evidence of CHF and with evidence of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema ( P  = 0.005 and P <0.001, respectively)., Conclusions and Relevance: Presence of cardiogenic pleural effusion is associated with a lower risk of developing ATE, while LA enlargement is a risk factor for ATE.

The use of transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) and esophageal Doppler (ED) for the measurement of hemodynamic variables in anesthetized dogs was studied. Fourteen mixed-breed dogs, without cardiac disease, undergoing general anesthesia for diagnostic or therapeutic procedures were included in this prospective preliminary study. Dogs were premedicated with dexmedetomidine (3 μg/kg) and methadone (0.3 mg/kg), intramuscularly. General anesthesia was induced with propofol intravenously titrated to effect and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. Animals were positioned in dorsal recumbency. Transthoracic echocardiography was performed using a 5-2 MHz cardiac ultrasound probe placed in the subcostal window, whereas esophageal Doppler was performed using a CardioQ probe (MP50; Deltex Medical, Chichester, UK). Once an appropriate view of the aortic flow was obtained, the variables peak velocity (PV) and velocity-time integral (VTI) were measured. Agreement between methods was evaluated using the Bland-Altman method with single observation per individual. The bias and the limits of agreement (LOA) between the two methods were determined. Mean (± SD) PV was 99.46 cm/s (± 42.73 cm/s) and 110.29 cm/s (± 35.86 cm/s), and VTI was 13.24 cm (± 4.33 cm) and 13.05 cm (± 4.47 cm), for TTE and ED, respectively. Mean differences and LOA were 10.83 cm/s (range: -20.50 to 42.16 cm/s) and -0.19 cm (range: -3.32 to 2.95 cm) for PV and VTI, respectively. No statistically significant differences were determined in the variables measured between TTE and ED in anesthetized dogs without cardiac disease, positioned in dorsal recumbency. This could be of clinical relevance when an evaluation of the intraoperative hemodynamic status of anesthetized dogs is desired., (Copyright and/or publishing rights held by the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association.)

Cardiac disease has been extensively documented in marine mammals; however, it remains difficult to diagnose antemortem. Assays measuring cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are used as sensitive and specific biomarkers of cardiac disease in many species, but have not been widely investigated in marine mammals. This study aimed to provide a set of reference values for cTnI and NT-proBNP in belugas (BW) ( Delphinapterus leucas ), sea otters (SO) ( Enhydra lutris ), Steller sea lions (SSL) ( Eumetopias jubatus ), and California sea lions (CSL) ( Zalophus californianus ) with and without cardiac disease, and to determine if these biomarkers are useful indicators of cardiac disease in these species. First, existing immunoassays for cTnI and NT-proBNP were successfully validated utilizing species-specific heart lysate spiked serum. Cohorts were defined by histopathology as animals with no evidence of cardiac disease ("control"), with confirmed cardiac disease ("disease"), and with concurrent renal and cardiac disease ("renal") for which serum samples were then analyzed. Serum concentration ranges for cTnI (ng/ml) and NT-proBNP (pmol/L) were determined for control and disease cohorts. There was significantly higher cTnI ( P = 0.003) and NT-proBNP ( P = 0.004) concentrations in the CSL disease cohort, as well as positive trends in BW, SO, and SSL disease cohorts that did not reach statistical significance. NT-proBNP concentrations were significantly higher in the CSL renal cohort compared with the control ( P < 0.001) and disease ( P = 0.007) cohorts. These results suggest that cTnI and NT-proBNP may be clinically useful in the antemortem diagnosis of cardiac disease in CSL, and warrant further investigation in BW, SO, and SL.

Introduction/objectives: Minimal information exists regarding epicardial pacemaker (EP) implantation in pet ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). The objectives were to describe the indications, surgical technique, and outcome of EP implantation in ferrets for the treatment of advanced atrioventricular block (AVB)., Animals, Materials, and Methods: Eight client-owned ferrets presenting to five veterinary referral centers. Signalment, physical exam findings, diagnostic tests, anesthesia protocols, surgical implantation techniques, postoperative treatment plans, and EP interrogations were reviewed. Intra- and postoperative, minor and major, and EP-related complications were established. Descriptive statistics were performed to report complication rates. Survival analyses were performed., Results: All ferrets had advanced AVB: 3/8 had high-grade second-degree and 5/8 had third-degree. The primary clinical signs were collapse and weakness. Seven EP were implanted via a transdiaphragmatic approach and one via a left intercostal thoracotomy. Intraoperative complications occurred in 2/8 ferrets, both major. One ferret with severe comorbidities died during general anesthesia. Postoperative pacemaker-related complications were minor: inappropriate sinus beat sensing in 2/8 and occasional muscle fasciculations in 1/8. Two ferrets were alive at the time of manuscript submission, at 10 and 21 months postoperatively. The overall median survival time was 24 months., Conclusions: Implantation of EP was performed successfully in most ferrets for treatment of advanced AVB and was well tolerated. Ferrets with advanced AVB may experience resolution of clinical signs associated with their cardiac disease following EP implantation. Additional studies are warranted to investigate the effects of epicardial pacing on survival times in this species., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest Statement The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cardiovascular diseases are common in pet birds. Diagnosis is often made postmortem only. In any case, suspicious for cardiac disease, a full diagnostic work up should be applied. First indications are given by the anamnestic data. Relative predisposition to cardiovascular diseases is associated with the species, breed, age, gender, lifestyle, and diet. Clinical signs and examination can reveal further indications of cardiovascular diseases, but may be unspecific or even without any pathologic finding. Diagnostic imaging, at least radiography, and echocardiography are always recommended. Advanced imaging methods, especially angiocardiography, can be valuable but is also more invasive and expensive., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cardiac disease is relatively common in middle-aged to older ferrets and may comprise acquired or congenital disorders leading to problems with conduction, contractility, or outflow. Clinical signs are often seen in advanced stages of the disease, with lethargy, hind limb weakness, ascites, hepatosplenomegaly, and respiratory distress owing to pleural effusion or lung edema being prominent features. Diagnostic workup and therapeutic intervention largely follow guidelines such as those established for dogs and cats, with feline doses often serving as a starting point for therapy., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The incidence of cardiac diseases in pet rabbits and rodents increased over the past decade as these species live longer and diagnostics methods are more precise to diagnose heart diseases even in small-sized animals. The article summarizes diagnostics of cardiac diseases in selected exotic companion mammals, particularly in rabbits, guinea pigs, chinchillas, and rats. The emphasis of the paper is given on clinical examination, thoracic radiography, electrocardiography, and echocardiography., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Currently, there are more than 8200 amphibian species described, including the orders Anura (frogs and toads), Caudata (salamanders and newts) and Gymnophiona (caecilians). Amphibians have 3 heart chambers: 2 atria and 1 ventricle. Their heart anatomy, histology, and physiology are reviewed. The basic morphology of the heart is similar in all amphibians with some differences due to their lifestyle. Blood flow, blood mixing, and blood oxygenation show variation due to interindividual and interspecific differences. Finally, different diagnostic methods to investigate the amphibian heart are described and reported amphibian heart diseases are summarized, including genetic, congenital, infectious, and neoplastic heart diseases., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Information about heart diseases and their treatment is still sparce for rabbits and rodents. Dilated cardiomyopathy seems to occur more frequently in rabbits, whereas in guinea pigs pericardial effusion is often diagnosed. There are still no available therapeutic studies for heart diseases in rabbits and rodents, and treatment is often extrapolated from dogs and cats. Consideration should be given to the off-label use of drugs, mostly not licensed in the species mentioned in this article., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The notion that poikilotherms do not suffer from cardiovascular conditions is being increasingly challenged as diagnostic tools used in companion animal practice are applied to reptiles. However, the cause, diagnosis, and treatment of cardiac conditions in reptiles is difficult because of the scarcity of published literature. Auscultation, electrocardiography, radiography, and ultrasonography are helpful diagnostic techniques in herpetologic practice. Although the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cardiovascular drugs are poorly understood in these animals, basic principles remain applicable; these include pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic interventions. Further research is needed to establish species-specific cardiac reference ranges and evidence-based treatment options., Competing Interests: Disclosure The author has nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cardiac disease, in its various presentations, is being recognized as a common raptor health problem. Evidence suggests that the prevalence of cardiac disease varies between captive and wild bird of prey populations, probably because of differences in activity levels and diet. However, a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases have been reported to affect raptor species (captive and free living), including atherosclerosis, pathogenic arrhythmias, infectious cardiomyopathies, and endocarditis. Diagnostic testing used to identify cardiac abnormalities include radiographic imaging, electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and computed tomography angiograms. Information pertaining to therapeutic treatment for raptor cardiac disease patients is inadequate or has not been investigated. This review of cardiac disease will provide current information regarding cardiac diseases that are diagnosed in birds of prey, diagnostic testing, and treatment options.

In humans, inflammatory markers predict health risks. As great apes experience many similar conditions, measuring inflammation may provide valuable health information. We examined four serum inflammatory markers in zoo-housed gorillas (n = 48): albumin, CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α. We first analyzed age- and sex-associated patterns, then used multimodel inference to evaluate models with age, sex, and inflammatory markers as predictors of all-cause morbidity, cardiac disease, and mortality. Older gorillas had lower albumin and higher IL-6, and males had higher albumin, lower CRP, and lower TNF-α. All-cause morbidity was best predicted by age, sex, and TNF-α, but the second model containing only age and sex was equivalent. Cardiac disease was best predicted by TNF-α alongside age and sex, with lower levels associated with increased risk. When outliers were removed, the model with TNF-α was second to the model containing only age and sex. Finally, mortality risk was best predicted by the model with only age and sex. Other models containing individual inflammatory markers were within top model sets for each health outcome. Our results indicate that age and sex are robust for predicting all-cause morbidity and mortality risk in gorillas; while models which include individual inflammatory markers also predict risk, they may not improve predictions over age and sex alone. However, given the prevalence of cardiac disease in great apes, these results suggest that TNF-α warrants further investigation. With their potential to provide valuable health information, data on inflammatory markers may contribute to the care and management of gorillas in human care., (© 2021. Japan Monkey Centre.)

Practical Relevance: The feline cardiomyopathies are the most prevalent type of heart disease in adult domestic cats. Several forms have been identified (see Parts 2 and 3), with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) being the most common. Clinically the cardiomyopathies are often indistinguishable. Cats with subclinical cardiomyopathy may or may not have characteristic physical examination findings (eg, heart murmur, gallop sound), or radiographic cardiomegaly. Cats with severe disease may develop signs of heart failure (eg, dyspnea, tachypnea) or systemic arterial thromboembolism (ATE; eg, pain and paralysis). Sudden death is possible. Treatment usually does not alter the progression from subclinical to clinical disease and often the treatment approach, once clinical signs are apparent, is the same regardless of the type of cardiomyopathy. However, differentiating cardiomyopathy from normal variation may be important prognostically., Patient Group: Domestic cats of any age from 3 months upward, of either sex and of any breed, can be affected. Mixed-breed cats are most commonly affected but certain breeds are disproportionately prone to developing HCM., Diagnostics: Subclinical feline cardiomyopathies may be suspected based on physical examination findings, thoracic radiographs and cardiac biomarker results but often the disease is clinically silent. The definitive clinical confirmatory test is echocardiography. Left heart failure (pulmonary edema and/or pleural effusion) is most commonly diagnosed radiographically, but point-of-care ultrasound and amino terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) biomarker testing can also be useful, especially when the stress of taking radiographs is best avoided., Key Findings: Knowledge of pathophysiological mechanisms helps the practitioner identify the feline cardiomyopathies and understand how these diseases progress and how they manifest clinically (heart failure, ATE). Existing diagnostic tests have strengths and limitations, and being aware of these can help a practitioner deliver optimal recommendations regarding referral., Conclusions: Several types of feline cardiomyopathies exist in both subclinical (mild to severe disease) and clinical (severe disease) phases. Heart failure and ATE are the most common clinical manifestations of severe cardiomyopathy and are therapeutic targets regardless of the type of cardiomyopathy. The long-term prognosis is often guarded or poor once overt clinical manifestations are present., Areas of Uncertainty: Some cats with presumed cardiomyopathy do not have echocardiographic features that fit the classic cardiomyopathies (cardiomyopathy - nonspecific phenotype). Although no definitive treatment is usually available, understanding how cardiomyopathies evolve remains worthy of investigation.

Heart disease is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in cats. Focused cardiac ultrasonography (FCU) is a useful diagnostic tool for identifying heart disease in symptomatic and asymptomatic cats when performed by trained veterinarians. When used in conjunction with other diagnostics such as physical examination, blood biomarkers, electrocardiography, Global FAST, and other point-of-care ultrasonographic examinations, FCU may improve clinical decision making and help clinicians prioritize which cats would benefit from referral for complete echocardiography and cardiac consultation. This article reviews the definition, advantages, clinical indications, limitations, training recommendations, and a protocol for FCU in cats., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) is a protected species in Denmark and at present, the population is recovering due to conservation efforts. The Danish otters are mainly found in the continental part of Denmark (Jutland), but establishment in the main islands (Fyn and Zealand) has been observed. While there is a lack of systematic studies on the parasite fauna of otters in Denmark, this study aims to screen otters for their parasite fauna, especially those of zoonotic and/or veterinary importance. Thirty-three otter carcasses, road-killed (n = 30), found dead (n = 2) and shot (n = 1), were collected between June 2013 and May 2014 and examined for cardiopulmonary, urogenital, gastrointestinal, and muscle helminths by post mortem examination. Faecal samples were analysed by modified concentration McMaster technique and direct immunofluorescence test for Giardia and Cryptosporidium. At least one parasite was found in 75.8% of animals. The parasite fauna included 13 species, consisting of five nematodes: Molineus patens (30.3%), Aonchotheca putorii (27.3%), Strongyloides sp. (24.2%), Physaloptera sp. (12.1%), Eucoleus aerophilus (10.0%); one cestode: Schistocephalus solidius (6.1%); four trematodes: Metorchis bilis (33.3%), Isthimiophora melis (15.2%), Cryptocotyle sp. (3.0%), Plagiorchis sp. (3.0%); one acanthocephalan: Acanthocephalus ranae (18.2%); and two protozoans: Giardia spp. (3.1%), and Eimeria spp. (3.1%). The study showed that otters carry parasites of zoonotic and veterinary importance. Many of these parasites can also infect native carnivores and birds, and the distribution of these parasites may be affected if the otter population continue to increase in Denmark., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to define the clinical characteristics of cats referred for evaluation of subclinical cardiac murmurs, and, secondarily, to identify predictors of echocardiographic identification of cardiac disease., Methods: One hundred and sixty-three apparently healthy cats with subclinical murmurs were retrospectively enrolled. Medical records of cats older than 1 year of age referred for the evaluation of subclinical murmurs were reviewed. Cats were considered healthy if clinical signs of systemic disease or cardiac disease were not reported and cats were not receiving cardiac medications. Logistic regression was used to identify clinical variables that predict echocardiographic identification of cardiac disease., Results: One hundred and eight cats (66.3%) had echocardiographic evidence of cardiac disease with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy being the most common (80.5%). Left atrial enlargement was uncommon; in 90% of cats with echocardiographically identified cardiac disease, the left atrial aortic ratio from two-dimensional echocardiography was <1.51. Cats with cardiac disease were more likely to be male ( P  = 0.016), weigh more ( P <0.01) and have a murmur of intensity ⩾3/6 ( P  = 0.019) than cats without cardiac disease. Murmur intensity ⩾grade 3/6 ( P  = 0.01) and male sex ( P  = 0.01) were independent predictors of echocardiographic evidence of cardiac disease in multivariable analysis., Conclusions and Relevance: The majority of cats referred for evaluation of subclinical cardiac murmurs have cardiac disease. Based on left atrial dimensions, cardiac disease is generally mild. Male sex and a loud cardiac murmur are associated with the identification of cardiac disease.

Studies of predator feeding ecology commonly focus on energy intake. However, captive predators have been documented to selectively feed to optimize macronutrient intake. As many apex predators experience environmental changes that affect prey availability, limitations on selective feeding can affect energetics and health. We estimated the protein:fat ratio of diets consumed by wild polar bears using a novel isotope-based approach, measured protein:fat ratios selected by zoo polar bears offered dietary choice and examined potential energetic and health consequences of overconsuming protein. Dietary protein levels selected by wild and zoo polar bears were low and similar to selection observed in omnivorous brown bears, which reduced energy intake requirements by 70% compared with lean meat diets. Higher-protein diets fed to zoo polar bears during normal care were concurrent with high rates of mortality from kidney disease and liver cancer. Our results suggest that polar bears have low protein requirements and that limitations on selective consumption of marine mammal blubber consequent to climate change could meaningfully increase their energetic costs. Although bear protein requirements appear lower than those of other carnivores, the energetic and health consequences of protein overconsumption identified in this study have the potential to affect a wide range of taxa., (© 2021. The Author(s).)