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Introduction: The anatomy of the brachial plexus has been a subject of interest to many researchers over time resulting in an inconsistent amount of data. Previously, our team had published two evidence-based studies on the anatomical variations involving the brachial plexus, therefore the aim of this study was to analyze the findings regarding the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus with the use of meta-analytic techniques to complete the comprehensive series., Material and Methods: Major scientific databases were extensively searched to compile anatomical studies investigating the morphology of the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus. Extracted data were classified based on our proposed classification system and subsequently analyzed with the use of random effects meta-analysis to state the pooled prevalence estimates of the distinct variation patterns., Results: A total of 75 studies (4772 upper limbs) were selected for the meta-analysis. The branches of the lateral cord, including the lateral pectoral nerve and musculocutaneous nerve, resembled their usual origin in 76.8% (95% CI 50-96%) and 98.8% (95% CI 98-100%), respectively. The medial pectoral nerve, medial brachial cutaneous nerves, medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve and ulnar nerve emerging from the medial cord were observed originating from their usual origins in 90.9% (95% CI 68-100%), 90.7% (95% CI 73-100%), 87.9% (95% CI 67-99%) and 97.7% (95% CI 94-100%), respectively. Lastly, nerves branching from the posterior cord, including the superior and inferior subscapular nerves, thoracodorsal nerve, axillary nerve and radial nerve, originated as per textbook description in 90.7% (95% CI 80-98%), 76.1% (95% CI 61-89%), 90.1% (95% CI 84-95%), 79.8% (95% CI 68-90%) and 99.0% (95% CI 96-100%), respectively. Moreover, the usual origin of the median nerve from the lateral and medial cord via the corresponding roots was encountered in 89.7% (95% CI 84-95%) of cases., Conclusions: The nerves originating from the infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus exhibit a wide spectrum of possible origins. However, the usual patterns were significantly the most common types present in more than three quarters of cases. Especially clinicians might profit from the enhanced understanding of the brachial plexus anatomy presented herein, since we offer a strong guide for handling the anatomically challenging pathologies in this specific area., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The brachial plexus is a complex anatomical structure that gives rise to all the nerves of the upper limb. Its variability is frequently observed and represents a challenge for interventions in the lower neck and axilla. The aim of this study was to present a comprehensive and evidence-based review with meta-analytic techniques on the variability of roots, trunks, divisions and cords of the brachial plexus., Materials and Methods: Major medical databases were searched to identify all anatomical studies investigating the variability in the formation of the brachial plexus. Data extracted consisted of demographic information, morphometric parameters, the arrangement of the brachial plexus at the level of the roots, trunks, divisions and cords and the relationship of the brachial plexus to the axillary artery and scalene muscles. The different configurations of the brachial plexus were put into a new classification, and the pooled prevalence of each case was calculated using a random effects model. A sub-analysis on age and geographical location was also performed., Results: A total of 40 studies (3055 upper limbs) were included in the meta-analysis. The regular arrangement of roots forming trunks was identified in 84% (95% CI 79-89%) of cases. The overall prevalence of the prefixed and postfixed brachial plexus was 11% (95% CI 6-17%) and 1% (95% CI 0-1%), respectively and in less than 0.1% of cases the brachial plexus received a branch from both C4 and T2. For divisions forming cords, the regular arrangement was observed in 96% (95% CI 93-98%) of cases. Additional communicating branches between the components of the brachial plexus appeared in 5% (95% CI 3-7%) of cases. The relationship of the brachial plexus to the axillary artery and scalene muscles was considered regular in 96% (95% CI 89-100%) and 86% (95% CI 66-98%) of cases, respectively. Analysis of the morphometric parameters revealed the proportional consistency between the components forming the plexus during aging., Conclusions: Knowledge of anatomical variations of the brachial plexus is important for examinations and interventions in the lower neck and axilla. The variability was observed especially in the roots forming trunks, while divisions forming cords showed quite stable appearance. The results of this evidence-based review and meta-analysis can be applied in many different medical disciplines., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Introduction: The anatomy of the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus is highly variable, therefore the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the various origins of the long thoracic, dorsal scapular, suprascapular and subclavian nerves., Materials and Methods: Major electronic databases were searched to identify all cadaveric studies investigating the morphology of the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus. Data on the origins of these nerves were extracted and classified. A random effects meta-analysis was performed to state the pooled prevalence estimates., Results: A total of 26 studies, constituting a total of 1021 cases, were deemed eligible for inclusion into the meta-analysis. The usual origin of the long thoracic nerve from the C5, C6 and C7 roots was observed in 78.1% (95% CI 69.4-86.7%) of cases and 21.9% (95% CI 13.3-30.6%) had unusual origins. An accessory long thoracic nerve occurred in 0.3% (95% CI 0-0.7%) of cases. The overall prevalence of the dorsal scapular nerve arising from its usual origin the C5 root was found in 85.2% (95% CI 75.7-94.6%) of cases, while 14.8% (95% CI 5.4-24.3%) appeared abnormal. The suprascapular nerve emerged from its usual point on the superior trunk in 89.8% (95% CI 85.1-94.4%) of cases and in 10.2% (95% CI 5.6-14.9%) of cases had a variable origin. An accessory suprascapular nerve was present in 0.2% (95% CI 0-0.6%). Two possible sites of origin of the subclavian nerve were noted and the typical origin from the superior trunk was found in 98.3% (95% CI 96.3-100%) of cases and variable origin from the C5 root in 1.7% (95% CI 0-3.7%). All unusual origins of each nerve were much less common., Conclusions: The nerves emerging from the supraclavicular part of the brachial plexus express a wide spectrum of potential origins. Based on their various origins, a new classification system for all the nerves belonging to the supraclavicular part was proposed. Knowledge of these variations and their prevalence data is important to prevent iatrogenic injuries and to state useful landmarks for interventions in the axilla., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Over 50 million humans live in areas of potential exposure to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The disease exhibits an estimated 16,000 cases recorded annually over 30 European and Asian countries. Conventionally, TBEV transmission to Ixodes spp. ticks occurs whilst feeding on viraemic animals. However, an alternative mechanism of non-viraemic transmission (NVT) between infected and uninfected ticks co-feeding on the same transmission-competent host, has also been demonstrated. Here, using laboratory-bred I. ricinus ticks, we demonstrate low and high efficiency NVT for TBEV strains Vasilchenko (Vs) and Hypr, respectively. These virus strains share high sequence similarity but are classified as two TBEV subtypes. The Vs strain is a Siberian subtype, naturally associated with I. persulcatus ticks whilst the Hypr strain is a European subtype, transmitted by I. ricinus ticks. In mammalian cell culture (porcine kidney cell line PS), Vs and Hypr induce low and high cytopathic effects (cpe), respectively. Using reverse genetics, we engineered a range of viable Vs/Hypr chimaeric strains, with substituted genes. No significant differences in replication rate were detected between wild-type and chimaeric viruses in cell culture. However, the chimaeric strain Vs[Hypr str] (Hypr structural and Vs non-structural genomic regions) demonstrated high efficiency NVT in I. ricinus whereas the counterpart Hypr[Vs str] was not transmitted by NVT, indicating that the virion structural proteins largely determine TBEV NVT transmission efficiency between ticks. In contrast, in cell culture, the extent of cpe was largely determined by the non-structural region of the TBEV genome. Chimaeras with Hypr non-structural genes were more cytotoxic for PS cells when compared with Vs genome-based chimaeras.