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Adult animals display robust locomotion, yet the timeline and mechanisms of how juvenile animals acquire coordinated movements and how these movements evolve during development are not well understood. Recent advances in quantitative behavioral analyses have paved the way for investigating complex natural behaviors like locomotion. In this study, we tracked the swimming and crawling behaviors of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans from postembryonic development through to adulthood. Our principal component analyses revealed that adult C. elegans swimming is low dimensional, suggesting that a small number of distinct postures, or eigenworms, account for most of the variance in the body shapes that constitute swimming behavior. Additionally, we found that crawling behavior in adult C. elegans is similarly low dimensional, corroborating previous studies. Further, our analysis revealed that swimming and crawling are distinguishable within the eigenworm space. Remarkably, young L1 larvae are capable of producing the postural shapes for swimming and crawling seen in adults, despite frequent instances of uncoordinated body movements. In contrast, late L1 larvae exhibit robust coordination of locomotion, while many neurons crucial for adult locomotion are still under development. In conclusion, this study establishes a comprehensive quantitative behavioral framework for understanding the neural basis of locomotor development, including distinct gaits such as swimming and crawling in C. elegans., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Hassinan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Intercellular communication between axons and Schwann cells is critical for attaining the complex morphological steps necessary for axon maturation. In the early onset motor neuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), many motor axons are not ensheathed by Schwann cells nor grow sufficiently in radial diameter to become myelinated. These developmentally arrested motor axons are dysfunctional and vulnerable to rapid degeneration, limiting efficacy of current SMA therapeutics. We hypothesized that accelerating SMA motor axon maturation would improve their function and reduce disease features. A principle regulator of peripheral axon development is neuregulin 1 type III (NRG1-III). Expressed on axon surfaces, it interacts with Schwann cell receptors to mediate axon ensheathment and myelination. We examined NRG1 mRNA and protein expression levels in human and mouse SMA tissues and observed reduced expression in SMA spinal cord and in ventral, but not dorsal root axons. To determine the impact of neuronal NRG1-III overexpression on SMA motor axon development, we bred NRG1-III overexpressing mice to SMA∆7 mice. Neonatally, elevated NRG1-III expression increased SMA ventral root size as well as axon segregation, diameter, and myelination resulting in improved motor axon conduction velocities. NRG1-III was not able to prevent distal axonal degeneration nor improve axon electrophysiology, motor behavior, or survival of older mice. Together these findings demonstrate that early SMA motor axon developmental impairments can be ameliorated by a molecular strategy independent of SMN replacement providing hope for future SMA combinatorial therapeutic approaches., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Many early-career neuroscientists with diverse identities may not have mentors who are more advanced in the neuroscience pipeline and have a congruent identity due to historic biases, laws, and policies impacting access to education. Cross-identity mentoring relationships pose challenges and power imbalances that impact the retention of diverse early career neuroscientists, but also hold the potential for a mutually enriching and collaborative relationship that fosters the mentee's success. Additionally, the barriers faced by diverse mentees and their mentorship needs may evolve with career progression and require developmental considerations. This article provides perspectives on factors that impact cross-identity mentorship from individuals participating in Diversifying the Community of Neuroscience (CNS)-a longitudinal, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) R25 neuroscience mentorship program developed to increase diversity in the neurosciences. Participants in Diversifying CNS were comprised of 14 graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and early career faculty who completed an online qualitative survey on cross-identity mentorship practices that impact their experience in neuroscience fields. Qualitative survey data were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis and resulted in four themes across career levels: (1) approach to mentorship and interpersonal dynamics, (2) allyship and management of power imbalance, (3) academic sponsorship, and (4) institutional barriers impacting navigation of academia. These themes, along with identified mentorship needs by developmental stage, provide insights mentors can use to better support the success of their mentees with diverse intersectional identities. As highlighted in our discussion, a mentor's awareness of systemic barriers along with active allyship are foundational for their role., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Hill-Jarrett, Ng, Cardenas-Iniguez, Akinsanya, Blanco, Borland, Brown, Clemons, Cushnie, Garcia, George, Hassinan, Hines, Landayan, McCorkle, Meckel, Metcalfe, Montoya, Rose and Warren.)

Gene replacement and pre-mRNA splicing modifier therapies represent breakthrough gene targeting treatments for the neuromuscular disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), but mechanisms underlying variable efficacy of treatment are incompletely understood. Our examination of severe infantile onset human SMA tissues obtained at expedited autopsy revealed persistence of developmentally immature motor neuron axons, many of which are actively degenerating. We identified similar features in a mouse model of severe SMA, in which impaired radial growth and Schwann cell ensheathment of motor axons began during embryogenesis and resulted in reduced acquisition of myelinated axons that impeded motor axon function neonatally. Axons that failed to ensheath degenerated rapidly postnatally, specifically releasing neurofilament light chain protein into the blood. Genetic restoration of survival motor neuron protein (SMN) expression in mouse motor neurons, but not in Schwann cells or muscle, improved SMA motor axon development and maintenance. Treatment with small-molecule SMN2 splice modifiers beginning immediately after birth in mice increased radial growth of the already myelinated axons, but in utero treatment was required to restore axonal growth and associated maturation, prevent subsequent neonatal axon degeneration, and enhance motor axon function. Together, these data reveal a cellular basis for the fulminant neonatal worsening of patients with infantile onset SMA and identify a temporal window for more effective treatment. These findings suggest that minimizing treatment delay is critical to achieve optimal therapeutic efficacy., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)