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The filamentous bacteriophage CTXΦ transmits the cholera toxin genes by infecting and lysogenizing its host, Vibrio cholerae . CTXΦ genes required for virion production initiate transcription from the strong P A promoter, which is dually repressed in lysogens by the phage-encoded repressor RstR and the host-encoded SOS repressor LexA. Here we identify the neighboring divergent rstR promoter, P R , and show that RstR both positively and negatively autoregulates its own expression from this promoter. LexA is absolutely required for RstR-mediated activation of P R transcription. RstR autoactivation occurs when RstR is bound to an operator site centered 60 bp upstream of the start of transcription, and the coactivator LexA is bound to a 16-bp SOS box centered at position −23.5, within the P R spacer region. Our results indicate that LexA, when bound to its single site in the CTXΦ prophage, both represses transcription from P A and coactivates transcription from the divergent P R . We propose that LexA coordinates P A and P R prophage transcription in a gene regulatory circuit. This circuit is predicted to display transient switch behavior upon induction of CTXΦ lysogens.

CTXPhi is a Vibrio cholerae-specific temperate filamentous phage that encodes cholera toxin. CTXPhi lysogens can be induced with DNA damage-inducing agents such as UV light, leading to the release of CTXPhi virions and the rapid dissemination of cholera toxin genes to new V. cholerae hosts. This environmental regulation is directly mediated by LexA, the host-encoded global SOS transcription factor. LexA and a phage-encoded repressor, RstR, both repress transcription from P(rstA), the primary CTXPhi promoter. Because the LexA binding site is located upstream of the core P(rstA) promoter and overlaps with A-tract sequences, we speculated that LexA represses P(rstA) by occluding a promoter UP element, a binding site for the C-terminal domain of the alpha subunit of RNA polymerase (RNAP) (alphaCTD). Using in vitro transcription assays, we have shown that the LexA binding site stimulates maximal rstA transcription in the absence of any added factors. The alphaCTD of RNAP is required for this stimulation, demonstrating that the LexA site contains, or overlaps with, a promoter UP element. LexA represses rstA transcription by normal RNAP but fails to repress rstA transcription catalyzed by RNAP lacking the alphaCTD. DNase I footprint analysis mapped the alphaCTD binding site to the upstream promoter region that includes the LexA binding site. The addition of free alpha subunits blocked the binding of LexA to rstA promoter DNA, indicating that LexA and the alphaCTD directly compete for binding to their respective sites. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a repressor blocking transcription initiation by occluding a promoter UP element.

The genes encoding cholera toxin, one of the principal virulence factors of the diarrhoeal pathogen Vibrio cholerae, are part of the genome of CTXphi, a filamentous bacteriophage. Thus, CTXphi has played a critical role in the evolution of the pathogenicity of V. cholerae. Unlike the well-studied F pilus-specific filamentous coliphages, CTXphi integrates site-specifically into its host chromosome and forms stable lysogens. Here we focus on the CTXphi life cycle and, in particular, on recent studies of the mechanism of CTXphi integration and the factors that govern lysogeny. These and other processes illustrate the remarkable dependence of CTXphi on host-encoded factors.

CTXphi is a filamentous bacteriophage whose genome encodes cholera toxin, the principal virulence factor of Vibrio cholerae. We have found that the CTXphi-related element RS1 is a satellite phage whose transmission depends upon proteins produced from a CTX prophage (its helper phage). However, unlike other satellite phages and satellite animal viruses, RS1 can aid the CTX prophage as well as exploit it, due to the RS1-encoded protein RstC. RstC, whose function previously was unknown, is an antirepressor that counteracts the activity of the phage repressor RstR. RstC promotes transcription of genes required for phage production and thereby promotes transmission of both RS1 and CTXphi. Antirepression by RstC also induces expression of the cholera toxin genes, ctxAB, and thus may contribute to the virulence of V.cholerae. In vitro, RstC binds directly to RstR, producing unusual, insoluble aggregates containing both proteins. In vivo, RstC and RstR are both found at the cell pole, where they again appear to form stable complexes. The sequestration/inactivation process induced by RstC resembles those induced by mutant polyglutamine-containing proteins implicated in human neurodegenerative disorders.

The genes encoding cholera toxin, the principal virulence factor of Vibrio cholerae, are part of the circular single-stranded DNA genome of CTXφ. In toxigenic V. cholerae strains, the CTXφ genome is typically found in integrated arrays of tandemly arranged CTX prophages. Infected cells that lack a chromosomal integration site harbour the CTXφ genome as a plasmid (pCTX). We studied the replication of pCTX and found several indications that this plasmid replicates via a rolling-circle (RC) mechanism. The initiation and termination sites for pCTX plus-strand DNA synthesis were mapped to a 22 bp sequence that contains inverted repeats and a nonanucleotide motif found in the plus-strand origins of several RC replicons. Furthermore, similar to other RC replicons, replication of plasmids containing duplicated pCTX origins resulted in the deletion of sequences between the two origins and the formation of a single chimeric origin. Our previous work revealed that CTX prophage arrays give rise to hybrid CTX virions that contain sequences derived from two adjacent prophages. We now report that the boundaries between the sequences contributed to virions by the upstream and the downstream prophages in an array correspond to the site at which synthesis of plus-strand pCTX DNA is initiated and terminated. These data support the model that plus-strand CTXφ DNA is generated from chromosomal prophages via a novel process analogous to RC replication.

CTXφ is a lysogenic, filamentous bacteriophage. Its genome includes the genes encoding cholera toxin ( ctxAB ), one of the principal virulence factors of Vibrio cholerae ; consequently, nonpathogenic strains of V. cholerae can be converted into toxigenic strains by CTXφ infection. O139 Calcutta strains of V. cholerae , which were linked to cholera outbreaks in Calcutta, India, in 1996, are novel pathogenic strains that carry two distinct CTX prophages integrated in tandem: CTX ET , the prophage previously characterized within El Tor strains, and a new CTX Calcutta prophage (CTX calc ). We found that the CTX calc prophage gives rise to infectious virions; thus, CTX ET φ is no longer the only known vector for transmission of ctxAB . The most functionally significant differences between the nucleotide sequences of CTX calc φ and CTX ET φ are located within the phages’ repressor genes ( rstR calc and rstR ET , respectively) and their RstR operators. RstR calc is a novel, allele-specific repressor that regulates replication of CTX calc φ by inhibiting the activity of the rstA calc promoter. RstR calc has no inhibitory effect upon the classical and El Tor rstA promoters, which are instead regulated by their cognate RstRs. Consequently, production of RstR calc renders a CTX calc lysogen immune to superinfection by CTX calc φ but susceptible (heteroimmune) to infection by CTX ET φ. Analysis of the prophage arrays generated by sequentially integrated CTX phages revealed that pathogenic V. cholerae O139 Calcutta probably arose via infection of an O139 CTX ET φ lysogen by CTX calc φ.

In Escherichia coli, precursor proteins are targeted to the membrane-bound translocase by the cytosolic chaperone SecB. SecB binds to the extreme carboxy-terminus of the SecA ATPase translocase subunit, and this interaction is promoted by preproteins. The mutant SecB proteins, L75Q and E77K, which interfere with preprotein translocation in vivo, are unable to stimulate in vitro translocation. Both mutants bind proOmpA but fail to support the SecA-dependent membrane binding of proOmpA because of a marked reduction in their binding affinities for SecA. The stimulatory effect of preproteins on the interaction between SecB and SecA exclusively involves the signal sequence domain of the preprotein, as it can be mimicked by a synthetic signal peptide and is not observed with a mutant preprotein (delta8proOmpA) bearing a non-functional signal sequence. Delta8proOmpA is not translocated across wild-type membranes, but the translocation defect is suppressed in inner membrane vesicles derived from a prIA4 strain. SecB reduces the translocation of delta8proOmpA into these vesicles and almost completely prevents translocation when, in addition, the SecB binding site on SecA is removed. These data demonstrate that efficient targeting of preproteins by SecB requires both a functional signal sequence and a SecB binding domain on SecA. It is concluded that the SecB-SecA interaction is needed to dissociate the mature preprotein domain from SecB and that binding of the signal sequence domain to SecA is required to ensure efficient transfer of the preprotein to the translocase.

Pathogenic strains of Vibrio cholerae are lysogens of the filamentous phage CTXφ, which carries the genes for cholera toxin ( ctxAB ). We found that the titers of infective CTXφ in culture supernatants of El Tor CTXφ lysogens increased rapidly during exponential growth but dropped to undetectable levels late in stationary-phase growth. When CTXφ transducing particles were mixed with stationary-phase culture supernatants of El Tor strains, CTXφ infectivity was destroyed. Our data indicate that this growth phase-regulated factor, designated CDF (CTXφ-destroying factor), is the secreted hemagglutinin/protease (HA/P) of V. cholerae . A strain containing a disrupted hap gene, which encodes HA/P of V. cholerae , did not produce CDF activity in culture supernatants. Introduction of the HA/P-expressing plasmid pCH2 restored CDF activity. Also, CDF activity in culture supernatants of a variety of pathogenic V. cholerae isolates varied widely but correlated with the levels of secreted HA/P, as measured by immunoblotting with anti-HA/P antibody. CDF was purified from V. cholerae culture supernatants and shown to contain a 45-kDa polypeptide which bound anti-HA/P antibodies and which comigrated with HA/P in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The production of high levels of secreted HA/P by certain V. cholerae strains may be a factor in preventing CTXφ reinfection in natural environments and in the human host.

The Escherichia coli SecB protein binds newly synthesized precursor maltose-binding protein (preMBP) and promotes its rapid export from the cytoplasm. Site-directed mutagenesis of two regions of SecB was carried out to better understand factors governing the SecB.preMBP interaction. 30 aminoacyl substitution mutants were analyzed, revealing two distinct classes of secB mutants. Substitutions at the alternating positions Phe-74, Cys-76, Val-78, or Gln-80 reduced the ability of SecB to form stable complexes with preMBP, but caused only mild defects in the rate of MBP export from living cells. The pattern revealed by this class of mutants suggests that a primary binding site for preMBP is hydrophobic and contains beta-sheet secondary structure. In contrast, substitutions at Asp-20, Glu-24, Leu-75, or Glu-77 caused a severe slowing in the rate of MBP export but did not disrupt SecB.preMBP complex formation. These largely acidic residues may function to regulate the opening of a preprotein binding site, allowing both high affinity preprotein binding and rapid dissociation of SecB.preprotein complexes at the membrane translocation site.

The genes encoding cholera toxin, one of the principal virulence factors of the diarrhoeal pathogen Vibrio cholerae, are part of the genome of CTXphi, a filamentous bacteriophage. Thus, CTXphi has played a critical role in the evolution of the pathogenicity of V. cholerae. Unlike the well-studied F pilus-specific filamentous coliphages, CTXphi integrates site-specifically into its host chromosome and forms stable lysogens. Here we focus on the CTXphi life cycle and, in particular, on recent studies of the mechanism of CTXphi integration and the factors that govern lysogeny. These and other processes illustrate the remarkable dependence of CTXphi on host-encoded factors.

The physiologic conditions and molecular interactions that control phage production have been studied in few temperate phages. We investigated the mechanisms that regulate production of CTXφ, a temperate filamentous phage that infects Vibrio cholerae and encodes cholera toxin. In CTXφ lysogens, the activity of P rstA , the only CTXφ promoter required for CTX prophage development, is repressed by RstR, the CTXφ repressor. We found that the V. cholerae SOS response regulates CTXφ production. The molecular mechanism by which this cellular response to DNA damage controls CTXφ production differs from that by which the E. coli SOS response controls induction of many prophages. UV-stimulated CTXφ production required RecA-dependent autocleavage of LexA, a repressor that controls expression of numerous host DNA repair genes. LexA and RstR both bind to and repress P rstA . Thus, CTXφ production is controlled by a cellular repressor whose activity is regulated by the cell's response to DNA damage.

CTXϕ is a filamentous bacteriophage that encodes cholera toxin and integrates into the Vibrio cholerae genome to form stable lysogens. In CTXϕ lysogens, gene expression originating from the rstA phage promoter is repressed by the phage-encoded repressor RstR. The N-terminal region of RstR contains a helix-turn-helix DNA-binding element similar to the helix-turn-helix of the cI/Cro family of phage repressors, whereas the short C-terminal region is unrelated to the oligomerization domain of cI repressor. Purified His-tagged RstR bound to three extended 50-bp operator sites in the rstA promoter region. Each of the RstR footprints exhibited a characteristic staggered pattern of DNase I-accessible regions that suggested RstR binds DNA as a dimer-of-dimers. In gel permeation chromatography and cross-linking experiments, RstR oligomerized to form dimers and tetramers. RstR was shown to be tetrameric when bound to operator DNA by performing mobility shift experiments with mixtures of RstR and a lengthened active variant of RstR. Binding of RstR to the high affinity O1 site could be fit to a cooperative model of operator binding in which two RstR dimers associate to form tetrameric RstR-operator complexes. The binding of RstR dimers to the left or right halves of O1 operator DNA was not observed in mobility shift assays. These observations support a model in which protein-protein contacts between neighboring RstR dimers contribute to strong operator binding.

3), increased IgG intrathecal synthesis (IgG index 0·8; normal

CTXphi is a filamentous phage that encodes cholera toxin, one of the principal virulence factors of Vibrio cholerae. CTXphi is unusual among filamentous phages because it can either replicate as a plasmid or integrate into the V. cholerae chromosome at a specific site. The CTXphi genome has two regions, the 'core' and RS2. Integrated CTXphi is frequently flanked by an element known as RS1 which is related to RS2. The nucleotide sequences of RS2 and RS1 were determined. These related elements contain three nearly identical open reading frames (ORFs), which in RS2 were designated rstR, rstA2 and rstB2. RS1 contains an additional ORF designated rstC. Functional analyses indicate that rstA2 is required for CTXphi replication and rstB2 is required for CTXphi integration. The amino terminus of RstR is similar to the amino termini of other phage-encoded repressors, and RstR represses the expression of rstA2. Although genes with related functions are clustered in the genome of CTXphi in a way similar to those for other filamentous phages, the CTXphi RS2-encoded gene products mediating replication, integration and repression appear to be novel.