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Objective: Unlike excisional haemorrhoidectomy, stapled anopexy (SA), which does not involve radical excision, has theoretical advantages, thus offering potential patient benefits. We compared the clinical efficacy, safety and patient acceptability of SA, with closed haemorrhoidectomy (CH). Patients and methods: 182 patients with symptomatic haemorrhoids (grades II, III, IV) were randomly assigned to receive SA or CH and were followed for up to 1 year (6, 12, 24, 48 weeks) after operation. Postoperative pain, symptom control, complications, re-treatment rates, patient satisfaction, and quality of life were compared on an intention-to-treat basis. Results: Postoperative pain in the SA group (n = 91) was significantly lower (p = 0.004, Mann–Whitney U test). At 1 year there were no significant differences in the symptom load, symptom severity or the disease severity between the two groups. Overall complication rates were similar but faecal urgency was reported more frequently following SA (p = 0.093, Fisher’s exact test). Despite a similar rate of residual symptoms, prolapse control was better with CH (p = 0.087, Fisher’s exact test), and more patients in the SA group required re-treatment for residual prolapse at 1 year (p = 0.037, Fisher’s exact test). However, more patients rated SA as an excellent operation at 6 and 12 weeks (p = 0.008 and 0.033, binary logistic regression) and were willing to undergo a repeat procedure if required (p = 0.018, Fisher’s exact test). Conclusion: Stapled anopexy offers a significantly less painful alternative to excisional haemorrhoidectomy and achieves a higher patient acceptability. Although the overall symptom control and safety are similar in the majority of the patients, the re-treatment rate for recurrent prolapse at 1 year is higher following SA when compared to CH.

Here we report on ecology and biodiversity of fungi in a unique mycological sanctuary in Britain, where data on species composition have been collected since 1994. To complement the biodiversity data by the information on the fungal ecological interactions and their role in the overall ecosystem functioning, soil properties and the composition of forest litter and field layer, bacterial population numbers and fungal biomass (in terms of ergosterol) were measured in 8 plots covered with different vegetations (beech, birch, birch-oak-beech, grass) over a May–Aug. period, and the results were analysed by correlation analysis and stepwise regression modelling together with data on protozoa and nematodes available from parallel research. The results highlighted the complexity of factors influencing temporal dynamics and spatial variability of fungal biomass in soil and forest litter. Most of the registered interactions appeared to be transient, and this should be taken into account while interpreting environmental observations. Interpretation of the specific relationships is given and implications for further research and overall ecosystem functioning are discussed.

Abstract Microinvertebrate abundance was measured, together with forest soil properties and litter components in eight plots dominated by beech and birch during May to August 2001. The results were analysed using ANOVA, stepwise regression and correlation analysis. Both protozoa and nematodes were analysed according to their functional groups. The protozoa were flagellates, ciliates and naked amoebae, and the nematodes were microbial and plant feeding nematodes. Moisture levels were between 28% and 33% in soil, and 50% to 70% in litter. Population numbers were very variable between sites and dates, and showed variable levels between May and July followed by a significant increase in August.ANOVA showed significant site and date effects, mainly in the litter. Stepwise regression models and correlation analysis revealed a number of interactions among separate groups of protozoa and nematodes, as well as their interrelations with fungi and bacteria. In addition, statistical analysis of soil data revealed a number of microfaunal relationships with soil pH, moisture and organic content, whilst in the field layer a number of significant interactions with specific forest litter fractions were found.The results have revealed particularly high levels of microfaunal abundance in the litter fraction compared to the soil, with flagellates and microbial feeding nematodes showing the highest levels among the trophic groups studied. These data compare well with other studies in similar ecosystems. The invertebrates present appear to be concentrated in hotspots of biological activity. In soil, they may predominantly have been confined to the rhizosphere. In the litter, their numbers may have been enhanced by nutrient availability, which may have increased throughout the study period owing to the gradual progress of decomposition facilitated by the combination of faunal, bacterial and fungal activity.

An in vitro oxidative stress test has been developed to assess pollutant tolerance in freshwater algae using Euglena gracilis as the test organism and FeSO4 and NaCl as the pollutants. The test evaluates free radical-mediated oxidative stress through the concomitant application of three biochemical assays: (1) the non-invasive, gas chromatographic-volatile headspace analysis of hydroxyl radicals ( OH) using dimethyl-sulphoxide as a radical trap; (2) the spectroscopic determination of total antioxidant activity; (3) a fluorescent microscopy viability test. In vitro pollutant testing was devised to simulate contaminant loadings that impact urban retention ponds. E. gracilis was found to be tolerant to FeSO4 (2–10% (w/v)) and NaCl (10–5000 ppm) as indicated by high positive viabilities (ca. 100%) and low, or no OH production, as compared to controls. Total antioxidant activity increased with increasing pollutant loading suggesting that the organism has the capacity to enhance antioxidant defence in response to pollutant stress. This in vitro test provides a new approach to monitor the effects of water quality on the biological components of urban and/or polluted aquatic ecosystems. It also has a potential application in the identification of putative algal phytoremediators.

A simple and reproducible algal tissue extraction protocol and a total antioxidant, radical cation decolourisation spectroscopic assay has been developed. This was applied to ascertain the potential for using algae and their stress responses as biological and biochemical indicators of environmental impacts in urban ponds. Total antioxidant and soluble protein profiles were constructed for the green alga Cladophora glomerata , which was seasonally sampled, from three sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) ponds located in an industrial and residential development created on a former Greenfield area in Fife, Scotland. Algal antioxidant profiles were impacted by a combination of lifecycle and pond structural parameters, including: seasonal sampling time, pond site and pond structure (e.g. inlet, outlet). The assay, as applied to algae as primary producer–indicator organisms is recommended for use in aquatic environmental monitoring programmes, which have a requirement to maintain the health status of disturbed aquatic urban ecosystems.

Summary The composition of forest litter and understorey layer, and fungal biomass (in terms of ergosterol) were measured in eight subplots over a winter – spring period (January to April). The sampling site was positioned in a range of woodland habitats (variously dominated by beech, Fagus sylvatica ; birch, Betula pendula × pubescens , and oak Quercus petraea ) and a clear area covered with grass (dominated by Holcus lanatus ). The results were analysed together with data on bacteria and microinvertebrates available from parallel research. Levels of ergosterol in individual subplots ranged between 50 and 160 µ g g − 1 DW. Fungal biomass decreased in March, and then increased signifi cantly in April. Stepwise regression models for ergosterol indicated positive relationships with moisture content (February), bacteria (all but February and March), fl agellates (February) and plant-feeding nematodes and fl ies (January, overall). The relationships with roots, seeds, the collective variable ‘ other microinvertebrates ’ (all March), amoebae (February) and fragments (March, overall) were negative, while the relationship between fungi- and microbial-feeding nematodes changed sign between February ( − ) and March (+). Results of analysis of covariance for fungal ergosterol were signifi cant only for January and the combined dataset. In January, fungi were shown to be signifi cantly related to amoebae, bacteria and a collembolan Folsomia candida , while the only signifi cant predictor returned by the overall model was bacteria. Correlation analysis confi rmed some effects already noted, and revealed a number of further interactions. The results highlighted the complexity of factors infl uencing temporal dynamics and spatial variability of

Abstract The micro and meso-invertebrate abundance was measured, together with forest litter composition, in eight plots of differing vegetation (dominated by beech and birch) over a winter-spring period. The litter moisture content was a mean of 76% during the sampling period and the beech sites were the driest. The results were analysed using a suite of statistical techniques, together with data on protozoa, fungi and bacteria available from parallel research. Nematodes were analysed according to the trophic levels, which included microbial feeders, plant feeders and predators. The majority of arthropods found were the collembolan, Folsomia candida and cryptostigmatid mites, with very small quantities of other micro- and mesoarthropods (such as larvae and mesostigmatid mites). The microarthropod populations peaked in January and fell during subsequent months, while population numbers of nematodes showed a decrease between January and February, followed by an increase in March. ANOVA showed a significant date effect, but no site-date interactions for the population abundance of both nematodes and microarthropods. Ecological interactions of meiofauna were analysed by ANCOVA, stepwise regression, and correlation analysis. Examples of relationships revealed include positive relationships of plant-feeding nematodes (PFN) with microbial feeding nematodes (MFN), and of F. candida with cryptostigmatid mites. Other positive interactions were found for PFN, MFN, F. candida, cryptostigmatid and mesostigmatid mites with litter components, such as beech leaves and litter thickness, moisture and grass, and protozoa. Negative interactions were recorded for PFN, MFN, F. candida, cryptostigmatid and mesostigmatid mites with beech leaves, fungi, protozoa and bacteria. The results have highlighted a very complex structure of factors influencing the temporal and spatial dynamics of the forest litter community. It is suggested that temperature and moisture content particularly influence the invertebrates present. The invertebrates appear to be present in a range of microhabitats, which may have resulted in a reduced level of competition and a high level of positive interactions revealed.

Cryopreservation is increasingly important for conserving endangered species including tropical rain forest germplasm where optimal cryopreservation protocols must be established rapidly sacrificing little germplasm. Currently, full factorial experiments analysed by ANOVA establish optimal conditions. However, these experiments can contain many treatment combinations whilst ANOVA identifies significant effects without guaranteeing to find robust optimal conditions. Taguchi optimization techniques efficiently identify robust conditions through fractional factorial experiments with an appropriate signal to noise ratio (SNR). This paper reports for the first time the use of Taguchi techniques in cryopreservation. An orthodox seed (Cassia siamea Lam.) was used to guarantee sufficient data to compare full and fractionally replicated experiments analysed using both ANOVA and SNR. For sprouting day (smaller is better), identical significant main effects were found for all experimental sizes for ANOVA and SNR. The 1/4 replicate did not allow investigation of interaction terms, but the significant main effects were the same for larger experiments. For shoot to root ratio (nominal is best), a significant main effect was found for all experimental sizes using ANOVA. This was also found using SNR, which identified additional significant main effect and interactions. No significant effects were found for dry weight (larger is better). We show smaller experiments are possible, provided important two level interactions are analysed. Differences determining the optimal treatment combination were found between ANOVA and SNR; with the Taguchi choice provides more robust solutions. Taguchi optimization techniques are recommended when germplasm is scarce and/or the experiment needs to be conducted rapidly.

The integration of a comprehensive monitoring programme conducted in a temperate woodland through statistical analysis and simulation modelling is presented here. The Heron Wood Reserve in Peebleshire, Scotland is a 7.5-ha wood, left untended to facilitate investigation into a natural Scottish Woodland Ecosystem. Data on fungal fruiting have been collected since 1994, and since November 2000 physico-chemical and biotic experiments on soil and woodland litter have also been conducted with the aim to construct and integrate a number of simulation submodels of the various ecological systems present in an untended Scottish woodland. Important systems for modelling include patterns of fungal succession, habitat characteristics and fungal biochemical patterns. A large volume of data has been collected so computer software is used for the storage and handling of data. Microsoft Access was the database used for storage; integration of functions available in Microsoft Excel with a customised software written in Microsoft Visual Basic and Microsoft VBA allowed various statistical modelling tests (e.g. Scheffe analysis of contrast) to be carried out, and the quick display of data in a suitable manner. Model Maker software is used to construct and test simulation models formulated from the data and ultimately to facilitate the running of various simulations. Integration of the separate lines of investigation is demonstrated on the example of a case study describing differences in the dynamics of decomposers in beech- and birch-dominated habitats. Integration of the information obtained allowed us to put forward the following hypothesis. The leaf litter produced by beech trees is of lower quality compared to birch, and decomposition in beech-dominated habitats is delayed (i.e. in comparison to birch-dominated) because of the differences in the extent to which these plants create and maintain a litter and humus layer ( sensu Wardle, Communities and Ecosystems. Linking the Aboveground and Belowground Components, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2002). Hence, the decomposition in beech-dominated habitats mainly occurs somewhat deeper in the soil profile, and may be carried out with some considerable involvement of ectomycorrhizal fungi. The correct understanding of the site-specific peculiarities of the ecological patterns is important for the improvement of biodiversity of woodland and forest ecosystems both in Scotland and worldwide.

Since 1994 data on fungal fruiting have been gathered in the Dawyck Botanic Garden outside Edinburgh, including that for eight plots within a 7.5 ha wood, which has been left unmanaged in order to investigate relationships amongst fungal succession, habitat characteristics and local weather patterns. The climatic data are provided by a small meteorological station situated on site. To handle nearly 4000 entries of data so far collected a computer database was constructed. This assists querying of the information so that changes in fungal communities and patterns of succession can be observed, and the relevant data extracted for further analysis. To aid in this analysis, and to give the user full control over editing, updating and querying the database, a special computer program was compiled. Analysis of the database records revealed that the currently known Dawyck fungal community comprises over 620 different taxa, and the species list increases every year. Although some species of mycorrhizal fungi showed high specificity towards their preferred host either at species (e.g. Lactarius blennius with beech, Lactarius quietus with oak, Russula fellea and Russula mairei with beech), or at genus level (e.g. Suillus spp. with Pinaceae), some other common fungi (e.g. of the genus Amanita ) were found to have very wide host ranges. In addition, unusual mycorrhizal associations have also been recorded. A lime tree ( Tilia ), which is supposedly primarily endomycorrhizal, has been found regularly associated with Russula cyanoxantha , Russula parazurea , Russula pectinata and Inocybe fastigiata . Many common Scottish fungi were found to be associated with introduced exotic trees, which is illustrated on the example of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas Fir). The software created utilises the Microsoft Office suite of programs. Microsoft Access was used to construct the database, and Microsoft Excel was used for statistical investigations. The software was programmed using Microsoft Visual Basic, and provided a means of extracting the necessary data stored in Access and controlling the formulae used in Excel for their analysis. The recorded seasonal patterns of fungal fruiting was successfully described by a simulation mathematical model comprising differential and algebraic equations. This model may now be used as a submodel within more complex models describing terrestrial ecosystem processes. Examples of model simulations and sensitivity analysis are given and implications for future research discussed.

Summary New Trichoderma isolates were prepared from soils collected in the areas of the world where the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans is indigenous. Agar-screening tests were carried out to identify the antagonistic effects of isolates and determine if their mode of action was geared towards production of volatiles. Overall, Trichoderma isolates from Northern California, USA, were found to be extremely effective against S. lacrymans (Schumacher ex Fr. Gray.) and some produced a killing effect in the agar systems. In addition, these isolates inhibited S. lacrymans growth by volatile production even in the absence of direct contact between the Trichoderma isolate and S. lacrymans, whereas a standard laboratory culture of Trichoderma harzianum T25 was found to be much less effective. In two different soil and wood microcosms the USA isolates were also able to stop the growth of S. lacrymans and produced an apparent killing effect.

A previous qualitative study [Nurse Education Today 20 (2000) 499] investigated perceptions of nurse teachers, student nurses and preceptors of the theory-practice gap said to exist within nursing. One theme was views of how the theory-practice gap could be closed. A subsequent quantitative study is reported here, in which this theme was translated into three factors. A full factorial experimental design was used to study the effect of these factors on theoretical knowledge and practical skill acquisition in a sample of first year undergraduate student nurses from one institution of higher education (n=19). The effect of whether a nurse teacher or preceptor taught students theoretical elements relating to a clinical specialty, whether the nurse teacher and preceptor collaborated on the content of what was taught to students and whether students went straight to, or delayed the clinical specialty following theoretical input, was examined. The results demonstrated preceptors were more effective than nurse teachers in promoting theoretical knowledge relating to their clinical specialty. Collaboration between the preceptors and nurse teachers on teaching content was ineffective at increasing theoretical knowledge. Delay between theoretical input and clinical experience was not detrimental for medical placements and for rehabilitation placements, resulted in an improved theoretical knowledge.

The abundance of heterotrophic flagellates, ciliates and naked amoebae was measured in 8 sites covered with different vegetation (beech, birch, beech-birch, birch-oak-beech, grass) from January to April 2001. The results were analysed by a suite of mathematical techniques, together with data on bacteria, fungi, nematodes, microarthropods, and the composition of forest litter and field layer, available from parallel research. The population levels ranged between 4.02 and 795 × 103, 28 and 1010, 35 and 1170 g–1 litter dry wt for flagellates, ciliates and amoebae, respectively. Temporal changes in the microbiota appeared to be affected by progressive winter cooling followed by a spring increase in temperature, and influenced by habitat characteristics and a complex multivariate interplay among ecosystem components. The population abundance in winter (January-mid March) was higher than in spring (late March–April) for all protozoa. Amoebae showed minimum values in March, followed by considerable recovery in April. However, ciliate values dropped slightly between March and April, whilst flagellate values steadily decreased throughout the whole research period, suggesting that the spring growth of ciliates and flagellates might have been arrested by increased predation and/or competition. Statistical analysis revealed a number of significant relationships between the protozoa studied and other ecosystem components. These relationships were indicative of the conditions studied and may, therefore, be useful for future reference. The results highlighted the complexity of transient multivariate interactions of protobiota in forest litter, suggesting that any interpretations of the population dynamics must take account of a full range of both temporal and spatial factors.

Acquisition and transfer of algae from distant polar locations to research facilities in the northern hemisphere may take several months, at which point the algae may be non-viable and in a deteriorated state. This study explores the effectiveness of 3% (w/v) Benomyl fungicide (Benlate) pre-treatments, on fungal "spoilage", viability and biochemical status of algae collected from terrestrial and freshwater habitats at Signy Island, maritime Antarctic. The results allow recommendations concerning sampling procedures and species selection for the ex-situ study of Antarctic algae to be made. The three algal taxa examined showed that although the fungicide was not necessary for successful transfer of viable specimens, it had a positive effect on viability. Prasiola crispa is suggested as a target organism for future ex-situ physiological studies.

Geometroid moth abundance, species richness, weather and plant phenology were monitored monthly for 3 y in the lowland dipterocarp forest at Pasoh Forest Reserve, Negeri Sembilan in Malaysia. The intensity of tree flowering in the previous month (with mass events triggered in response to El Niño Southern Oscillations) was an important environmental factor positively correlated with the numbers of species and individuals of geometroid moths that emerge in any month. Abundance for geometroid moths was greater in months with high flowering and flushing in the previous month but low flowering in the month before that. Important weather parameters that influenced moth abundance were monthly rainfall, relative humidity and minimum temperature in previous months. High rainfall 3 mo previously led to an increase in moth abundance (perhaps by stimulating an increase in fresh plant material), whereas high rainfall and relative humidity thereafter served to decrease abundance, possibly by encouraging the spread and activity of pathogens: all these factors impacted on early life-stage survivorship. Similar trends were observed for individual geometroid families and subfamilies. The diversity measurement for the geometroid moths, α from the log-series, was correlated more with weather parameters than with tree phenology.

Although international retailing has received increased research attention in recent years, there have been few contributions to the academic literature on the supply chain implications of the internationalization process or the variations in logistics networks in different geographical markets. This paper seeks to explore such variations by providing a taxonomy of European grocery distribution networks through the use of cluster analysis on 18 logistics-related variables applied to 10 country markets. The results show that the grocery retail market in Europe continues to exhibit significant differences at the country level. Similarities exist on several variables but there is a high degree of variability between country clusters on the three sub-sets of market structure, trading format and physical/socio-economic infrastructure.

The article sets out a process describing the links between the breach of psychological contracts and the resistance to strategic and organizational change. When organizations fail to respect employee interests, the low-trust relationships and levels of cynicism that invariably result severely constrain the potential for effective strategic change. Employee perceptions of breach of their psychological contracts over issues such as pay, communications and development were associated with lower levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Lack of job security was a major influence on the quality of trust relations in the organizations and also became an important factor in influencing employee cynicism. The case study draws on data from a study of a Scottish industrial textiles firm. For practitioners, the principal lesson to be learned is that the frequent introduction of programmes of change, far from signalling to employees an image of an innovative management team, can produce the opposite reaction where managers are viewed as incompetent and disrespectful of employees' talents and intellects. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Summary This paper reports on the use of yeast as biological control agents against mould and blue-stain fungi in laboratory-based Pinus sylvestris sapwood wood block incubation tests. All 5 yeast isolates tested significantly reduced discolouration of wood surfaces by moulds and most were also effective against staining fungi. The 2 most promising yeast isolates also significantly reduced radial growth of selected mould and stain fungi in vitro solely through the liberation of volatile compounds. Five bacterial isolates were also tested for antagonism toward mould and stain fungi and were effective biological control agents in wood block tests. Again, volatile production alone by the bacteria was shown to be sufficient to significantly reduce fungal growth in vitro. Most of the bacteria and yeasts significantly reduced wood discolouration by fungi when inoculated onto block surfaces 7 days before, or at the same time as the target fungi, and in some cases even when inoculated 7 days after the fungi. The possibility of using yeasts as biological control agents to prevent wood spoilage during kiln drying and short-term storage at sawmills is considered.

A stochastic cellular automaton for modelling the dynamics of a two-species fungal microcosm is presented. The state of each cell in the automaton depends on the state of a predefined neighbourhood via a set of conditional probabilities derived from experiments conducted on pairwise combinations of species. The model is tested by detailed comparison with larger-scale experimental microcosms. By employing different hypotheses which relate the pairwise data to the conditional probabilities in the model, the nature of the local and non-local interactions in the community is explored. The hypothesis that the large-scale dynamics are a consequence of independent interactions between species in a local neighbourhood can be excluded at the 5% significance level. The form of the interdependencies is determined and it is shown that the outcome of the interactions at the local neighbourhood-scale depends on the community-scale patterning of individuals. The dynamics of the microcosm are therefore an emergent property of the system of interacting mycelia that cannot be deduced from a study of the components in isolation.

Summary The purpose of this study was to evaluate the toxicological effects of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) and malondialdehyde (MDA) on in vitro plant cells using the model morphogenetic system of Daucus carota L. for the production of somatic embryos. It was found that both HNE and MDA inhibited proliferative growth and embryogenesis in D. carota cultures. However, embryogenic capacity was restored when callus cultures were transferred to embryo induction medium without FINE or MDA and the recovery of morphogenetic competence was more pronounced in cultures which had been exposed to MDA as compared to those which had been treated with HNE. Also, differential responses between embryogenic and nonembryogenic cultures were observed in relation to the delivery of aldehydes in different culture media. This paper reports, for the first time, the toxicological effects of HNE and MDA on in vitro plant cells. The significance of these findings in relation to the control of in vitro development in plant tissue cultures which are used in biotechnology programmes is discussed.

The community dynamics of two- and three-fungal species interactions derived for a tessellated agar model system are described. The microcosm allows for the varied prescription of: (1) the number of fungal species interacting; (2) the spatial configuration (patchiness) of the distribution of individuals; (3) the magnitude of scale of spatial occupation by different fungal individuals; and (4) the operation of antagonistic mechanisms based on contact or longer range diffusible components. Stepwise logistic regressions for two-species interactions are used to inform the design of the multi-species interaction tessellations. The model prescribes and investigates complex parameters, such as spatiotemporal heterogeneity and microcosm scale (e.g. population patchiness and crossing times). Data are quantified as proportion, interface class and state transition class of viable fungal species. Spatiotemporal heterogeneity is represented using a novel application of principal component analysis which shows good intuitive agreement with visual assessment of the interaction outcome patterns, and allows effective comparison of the data as a whole. The model demonstrates the influence of the complex and coordinated behaviour of fungal mycelia on community development: interaction outcome of three-species interactions cannot be directly extrapolated from the relevant binary component interactions; interaction outcomes of the multi-species tessellations appears to be neither random nor fully deterministic; a degree of stochasticity is apparent in all tessellation arrangements; the smaller scale tessellations produce more consistent interaction outcome results, probably because experimental scale affects the duration of transient behaviour; and different initial spatial configurations of inoculum (irrespective of inoculum quantity or proportion) influence community development and reproducibility.

This study of a sample of firms based in a region of Scotland, examines the characteristics of organizations that are early adopters of management development methods. The survey results show that organizations that are early adopters of one or more of four fashionable management development techniques—open learning, computer‐assisted learning, action learning and outdoor management training—are also characterized by a sophisticated approach to human resource development and the use of other ‘high performance’ HRM practices. Such findings are consistent with the literature on innovation that points to rational‐technical factors influencing the decision‐making process of early adopter organizations in contrast to institutional factors such as social conformity that are more important in influencing late adopter organizations. However, the data also point to the limitations of using an early‐late stage adoption framework for the diffusion of techniques such as those used in management development.

We report the first successful culturing and confirmation of identity (via sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, SDS–PAGE) of Serpula lacrymans (the dry rot fungus) derived from basidiomes and mycelia growing in the ‘wild’. The fungus was found growing on well decayed coniferous wood within the Narkanda region of the Western Himalayas at between 2800 and 3100 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The ‘wild’ habitat of the fungus is described, as is the isolation of Serpula himantioides also found in these regions. Temperature, osmotic potential, initial pH and air-current influenced the average colony extension rate of ‘wild’ and a selection of building isolates on 2% malt extract agar. The ‘wild’ and building isolates behaved as two separate cohorts; the ‘wild’ isolates appeared to be less affected by extremes of temperature, whereas building isolates extended more rapidly at the moderate microenvironmental regimes.

Three physical field models were constructed to assess the effects on soil of a chromated fluoride wood preservative treatment used at the groundline of creosoted electricity distribution poles. One model contained an untreated aged creosoted pole section in sandy loam soil, the second contained a remedially treated aged creosoted pole section in sandy loam soil and the third a similarly treated section in sand-amended sandy loam soil. The models were subjected to the equivalent of 6 months simulated rainfall exposure, and soil samples recovered from each model soilbed were used for the determination of soil dehydrogenase activity, fluoride and total chromium concentrations. Soil dehydrogenase activity was measured on both rye meal-supplemented and unsupplemented soil samples. Irrespective of supplementation, significant reductions in dehydrogenase activity were associated with increased soil concentrations of leached preservative constituents which were found within 5 cm of the treated pole sections. These reductions were enhanced by the lower organic matter content of the sand-amended soil. Supplementation with rye meal resulted in raised levels of dehydrogenase activity in all soil samples, which highlighted the negative effects of preservative soil contamination on microbial activity.

Previously reported results of agar interaction screening studies for biocontrol agents of wood decay basidiomycetes identified two Trichoderma viride isolates that killed 16 out of 19 target fungi. Testing of these isolates in wood was required to assess their performance in preventing decay of wood blocks. Standard testing of chemical wood preservatives is used to determine the toxic concentrations of preservative required to protect wood against decay by basidiomycetes. As no ratified standards for testing biocontrol agents exist, two amended wood block testing standards and a soil contact test were used to assess the effect of the Trichoderma isolates. An agar based system similar to European Standard EN 113 (1980), a soil-block test based on the AWPA Standard M10-77 (1977) and the soil contact system were used with Scots pine and Sitka spruce pre-treated with Trichoderma. Wood blocks treated with either Trichoderma isolate were completely protected against all the basidiomycetes tested, irrespective of the form of inoculum used (spores or mycelium), timber species or wood block test methodology. Implications of the results for the use of agar plate interaction studies for screening biocontrol agents for subsequent use in wood block testing are discussed as well as the merits of the modified standard tests for assessing biocontrol agents.

The growth rates, decay capacity and acid production of Serpula lacrymans (Schumacher ex Fr.) Gray and Coniophora puteana (Schumacher ex Fr.) Karst. were monitored under experimental conditions by cultivating these organisms on a range of media supplemented with varying concentrations of calcium and other divalent metal ions. Both C.puteana and S.lacrymans had maximal growth rates when cultivated on malt extract agar and wood blocks incubated on this medium gave substantial decay rates. By contrast, C.puteana cultivated on minimal medium supplemented with 21 mM calcium gave reduced growth rates whilst intermediate concentrations of calcium had little effect on the growth of the organism. In all cases, C.puteana cultivated on calcium containing minimal media gave minimal decay of the wood blocks. Finally C.puteana acidified all media and no indication of buffering was observed. Results obtained from S.lacrymans demonstrated that increasing calcium nitrate concentration promoted decay of wood blocks and increased organism growth rates. S.lacrymans also acidifed the various media used, but surface pH profiles indicated that the organism was able to buffer acid production to a certain extent when calcium nitrate, or other divalent ions, were available.

This paper describes macro- and microassay methods to assess the production of the lytic enzymes laminarinase and chitinase, by a range of Trichoderma isolates, and investigates the effect of nutrient composition, glucose amendment and the addition of basidiomycete cell wall material on the production of these lytic enzymes. Large interstrain and interspecies differences exist in the levels of production of both enzymes. Total activities of the enzymes are greater when isolates are cultured in malt medium, but specific chitinase and laminarinase activities are higher in low nutrient conditions. Glucose repressed the production of both laminarinase and chitinase, although this effect was not common to all Trichoderma isolates for the latter enzyme. Cell walls of both N. lepideus and T. versicolor induced increased chitinase activity but this effect was Trichoderma species specific. Mycoparasitism involving lytic enzymes has been described as the mechanism of action of Trichoderma species in the biological control of commercially important plant pathogens. However, little information is available on the significance of this mechanism for the biological control of wood decay fungi. The importance of mycoparasitism as a mechanism in the biological control of wood decay fungi is briefly discussed.

The failure rate of small firms in the UK is high, but there is little reliable evidence as to what factors account for success or failure in small businesses. Lending organizations have adopted a set of criteria that they use to evaluate new business proposals. One lending organization sponsored a research project with the object of identifying whether a general set of competences could be found which were associated with effective performance in the region. Describes the setting up and findings of the research, and identifies the competences that were found.

Consequences of initial spatial organisation of model fungal communities upon their spatio-temporal development were investigated. Dynamics of prescribed two- and three-species 'communities' developing on tessellated agar tile model systems were analysed in terms of literal maps, principal component analyses, or as the proportion of species extant within tiles. It was established that for two-species interactions of equal patch size, large-scale (i.e. many constituent tiles) behaviour could be extrapolated from the relevant small-scale (i.e. pairs of tiles) interactions. However, relative patch sizes (scale) of species within tessellations influenced the times taken by individuals to colonise tiles and, hence, temporal behaviour of the system. Outcome of arrangements involving three species of equal patch size and inoculum potential, and prescribed with different mixing patterns, could not be directly extrapolated by reference to the outcome of pair-wise interactions between constituent species. Three-species arrangements attempt to limit assembly of lateral aggregates of individuals (patch size) and hence any effects of tile colonisation times, so as to reveal effects of nearest neighbour context within the complex community. Such arrangements indicate that spatial configuration of inoculum influences community development and reproducibility. They also suggest that spatial distribution of species affects persistence of individuals, which would otherwise be expected to be eliminated from the system. Two-species interactions appeared generally more reproducible than those comprising three species, and the sensitivity of fungal community development to temperature was not solely associated with influence on colony extension rate.

Shoot-tips of Parkia speciosa, a recalcitrant seed producing tropical leguminous tree withstood cryopreservation using encapsulation-vitrification in combination with trehalose preculture. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that trehalose moderated the thermal characteristics of the shoot-tips. A 30 min PVS2 treatment had the lowest glass transition temperature (Tg) (-50.2 +/- 1.1 degree C) when applied in combination with 5% (w/v) trehalose. The Tg increased to -40.2 +/- 1.0 degree C as the sugar concentration was decreased to 2.5 percent (w/v). Tg heat capacity for shoot-tips treated with 2.5 percent and 5 percent (w/v) trehalose and exposed to PVS2 for 30 min increased from 0.17 +/ 0.05 to 0.23 +/- 0.01 J per gram, respectively. Enthalpies of the melt-endotherm varied in proportion to trehalose concentration, for the 30 min PVS2 treatment, whereas the melt enthalpy for control shoots was greater than 150 J per gram and decreased to ca. 60 J per gram with 2.5 percent (w/v) trehalose. For 5 percent and 10 percent (w/v) trehalose treatments, enthalpy declined to ca. 24 and 12 J per gram respectively and freezing points were depressed to -75 degree C and -85 degree C with 2.5 percent and 5 percent trehalose (w/v), respectively. DSC elucidated the critical points at which vitrification occurred in germplasm exposed to trehalose and PVS2. A 60 min PVS2 treatment supporting ca. 70 percent survival was found optimal for stable glass formation during cooling and on rewarming.

There is a need to characterise spatial point patterns of ecological plant communities in which a very large number of points exist for many different plant species. We further investigate principal component analysis for spatial point patterns using functional data analysis tools on second-order summary statistics as introduced in [10, 11]. The approach is used to detect different types of point patterns in a multi-type pattern to classify the species by their spatial arrangement. The developed method is evaluated in a detailed feasibility study, giving rise to a number of recommendations including the choice of the appropriate summary statistic. In addition, we investigate the performance of the method under noisy conditions simulating a number of settings typically occurring in an ecological context. Overall, the method produces stable results, the best results being achieved when the pair-correlation function is used. In all settings the level of noise needs to be very high to invalidate the results.

Interrelations of fungal mycelium with other soil biota are of paramount importance in forestry and soil ecology. Here we present the results of statistical analysis of a comprehensive data set collected in the first (and the only) British fungus sanctuary over a period of four months. The variables studied included a number of soil properties, bacteria, protozoan flagellates, ciliates and amoebae, microbial and plant feeding nematodes, various microarthropods, and two fungal biomarkers--glomalin and ergosterol. One way ANOVA showed that the dynamics of the microbiota studied was influenced by seasonal changes. Superimposed on these changes, however, was variability due to biological interactions and habitat characteristics. Two fungal biomarkers, ergosterol and glomalin, were differently influenced by other biota and abiotic variables. The results indicate that the dynamics of soil fungi is influenced not only by soil microarthropods, but also by those found in forest litter. The overall outcome, therefore, is likely to be very complex and will depend upon specific conditions of any particular ecosystem.