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The present study aimed to determine in vitro antimicrobial activities and phytochemical analysis of Harrisonia abyssinica and Vepris simplifolia which are commonly used as traditional medicine in Tanzania. Sensitivity of bacterial and fungal species against plants extracts were determined using serial microdilution method. In this method, the lowest inhibitory concentration which prevented microbial growth considered as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The study also evaluated phytochemical compounds present in the leaf, stem and root barks of H. abyssinica. It was revealed that eight extracts from H. abyssinica inhibited growth of three bacteria namely Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium and Streptococcus uberis at MIC value less than 1 mg/mL. It was further revealed that, three extracts from V. simplifolia exhibited high antibacterial and antifungal activity. The preliminary phytochemical analysis revealed presence of various phytochemicals namely alkaloids, terpenoid, flavonoid, tannin and saponin. It was concluded that presence of large number of phytochemicals in the plant extracts may be associated with pharmacological properties of H. abyssinica and V. simplifolia and therefore this study provide alternative to synthetic antimicrobial agents.

The modelling of the ecological niche of Harrisonia abyssinica in Benin made it possible to have a function of both parameters which predicts the probability of the presence of the species in their respective habitats. This study showed the current distribution of this species and its prediction for 2050. Species occurrence data records were combined with climatic and soil data in Maximum Entropy (Maxent), a species distribution modelling algorithm, to evaluate the impacts of future environmental conditions (under CNRM-CM5 and HadGEM2-ES) on the species’ potential distribution in Benin. The result showed that the habitats which are currently very suitable to H. abyssinica are mainly located in those agro-ecological zones: Cotton zone of the center (V), Zone of the land of bars (VI), Zone of depression (VII) and the Zone of fisheries (VIII) covering an area of 5339.21 km2 (4.7%) of the Beninese national territory. CNRM-CM5 model showed a decrease of 510.07 km2 in the highly suitable area for the species and HadGES-ES model showed an increase of 791.79 km2. According to the two models, the classified forest of Lama is and will remain the single protected forest moderately suitable to the conservation of H. abyssinica in Benin.

Important browses in selected districts were identified using goats’ preference and farmers’ knowledge. A total of 296 plots (20 × 20 m area) were placed along 16 transect lines randomly laid in plane and sloppy communal grazing lands to assess frequency of occurrences and density of the browse species. A total of 48 browse species out of which 31 were recognized by farmers were observed being browsed by goats. According to the goat owners, Balanites aegypetiaca was the most and Grewia bicolor was the least preferred, while the goats’ preferred Acacia tortilis as the most and Flueggea virosa as the least. In the plane area, the highest frequency of occurrence was seen for Rhus natalensis (62.4%) and Acacia mellifera (50.3%), while in the sloppy grazing area the most frequently occurring (43.9 to 54.4%) browses were Terminalia brownii, Harrisonia abyssinica, and Grewia bicolar. Density of Rhus natalensis appears to be higher both in plane (186 tree/ha) and sloppy (166 trees/ha) lands. The ranking of farmers and the goats’ preference appeared closely related. Therefore, further laboratory analysis should be conducted to verify the nutritional quality of the selected browses and urgent identification and conservation of potential browse trees and shrubs should be undertaken. Key words: Browse species, goats, grazing area, indigenous, shrubs.

Aluminum (Al) is an omnipresent mineral element in the environment. The brain is a central target of Al toxicity, being highly susceptible to oxidative damage. Therefore, recognition of drugs or natural products that guard against Al-mediated neuronal cell death is a powerful strategy for prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. This work aimed to explore the potential of a leaf extract from Harrisonia abyssinica to modulate the neurobehavioral, biochemical and histopathological activities induced experimentally by Al in vivo. Rats subjected to Al treatment displayed a reduction in learning and memory performance in a passive avoidance test accompanied by a decrease in the hippocampal monoamine and glutamate levels in addition to suppression of Bcl2 expression. Moreover, malondialdehyde (MDA), inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β), apoptotic markers (caspase-3 and expression of Bax) and extracellular regulated kinase (ERK1/2) levels were elevated along with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, histological changes and marked deposition of amyloid β plaques in the hippocampus region of the brain tissues being observed in Al-treated animals. Concomitant administration of the high dose of H. abyssinica (200 mg/kg b.w.) restored nearly normal levels of all parameters measured, rather than the low dose (100 mg/kg b.w.), an effect that was comparable to the reference drug (rivastigmine). Molecular docking revealed the appropriate potential of the extract components to block the active site of AChE and ERK2. In conclusion, H. abyssinica leaf extract conferred neuroprotection against Al-induced neurotoxic effects, most likely due to its high phenolic and flavonoid content.

The present study aimed to determine in vitro antimicrobial activities and phytochemical analysis of Harrisonia abyssinica and Vepris simplifolia which are commonly used as traditional medicine in Tanzania. Sensitivity of bacterial and fungal species against plants extracts were determined using serial microdilution method. In this method, the lowest inhibitory concentration which prevented microbial growth considered as minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The study also evaluated phytochemical compounds present in the leaf, stem and root barks of H. abyssinica. It was revealed that eight extracts from H. abyssinica inhibited growth of three bacteria namely Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium and Streptococcus uberis at MIC value less than 1 mg/mL. It was further revealed that, three extracts from V. simplifolia exhibited high antibacterial and antifungal activity. The preliminary phytochemical analysis revealed presence of various phytochemicals namely alkaloids, terpenoid, flavonoid, tannin and saponin. It was concluded that presence of large number of phytochemicals in the plant extracts may be associated with pharmacological properties of H. abyssinica and V. simplifolia and therefore this study provide alternative to synthetic antimicrobial agents.

The effect of supplements based on Ficus natalensis and Harrisonia abyssinica foliages on intake, growth and carcass yield of tethered goats was assessed on-farm using fourty growing intact male indigenous goats. Five diets were tested, which included the control (tethering on natural pastures), tethering supplemented with molasses (CM) and the three diets whereby tethering was supplemented with molasses as well as F. natalensis and H . abyssinica as follows: Harrisonia ⁄ molasses (HM), Ficus ⁄molasses (FM) and Ficus ⁄ Harrisonia ⁄molasses (FHM). The supplements were formulated to supply crude protein (CP) and energy levels required for an average daily gain of about 50 g/day. Four farms in the same geographical location were used. Each farm had all the five diets with two goats per diet. The goats were tethered during the day (10:00–18:00 h) and the supplements offered overnight (after tethering). The dry matter (DM) intake from tethering ranged between 124 and 162 g/day, and was not affected (P > 0.05) the basal DM intake. However, the total DM and CP intakes were increased (P Ficus natalensis and Harrisonia abyssinica foliages have the potential to be used as low cost protein supplements in low-input goat feeding systems. However, there is need to establish best presentation methods of the browse foliages to the goats.

Snakebite envenomation, cognized as a neglected tropical disease, is a dread public health concern with the most susceptible groups being herdsmen, the elderly, active farmers, hunters, fishers, firewood collectors, 10 to 14-year old working children and individuals with limited access to education and health care. Snakebites are fragmentarily documented in Uganda primarily because most occur in rural settings where traditional therapists end up being the first line defence for treatment. Ethnobotanical surveys in Uganda have unveiled that some plants are used to antagonize the activity of various snake venoms. This review was sought to compile the sporadic information on the vegetal species reported as antivenins in Uganda. Electronic data indicate that no study entirely reported on antivenin plants in Uganda. A total of 77 plant species belonging to 65 genera, distributed among 42 botanical families claimed as antiophidic in Uganda are used for treatment of snakebites. Majority of these species belong to family Fabaceae (30.9%), Euphorbiaceae (14.3%), Asteraceae (11.9%), Amaryllidaceae (9.5%) and Solanaceae (9.5%). The antiophidic species listed are shrubs (40.5%), trees (32.9%) and herbs (17.7%), usually found in the wild and uncultivated. Antivenin extracts are primarily prepared from roots and leaves, through decoctions, infusions, powders and juices and administered orally or topically. The most frequently encountered therapeutically important species are Allium cepa L., Carica papaya L., Securidaca longipedunculata Fres., Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. and Nicotiana tabacum L. Baseline epidemiological data on snake envenomation and antivenin plants in Uganda remain incomplete due to inadequate research and diverse ethnic groups in the country. There is a dire need to isolate and characterize the bioactive compounds in the claimed plants to enable their adroit utilization in handling the plague of snake envenomation. More baseline data should be collected on snake ecology and human behaviour as well as antivenin plants in Uganda. Indigenous knowledge on the use of plant preparations in traditional medicine in Uganda is humongous, but if this is not quickly researched and appropriately documented, indications as to the usefulness of this vegetal treasure house will be lost in the not so distant future.

The natural gastro properties of Ficus natalensis, Rhuss natalensis and Harrisonia abyssinica was evaluated with the objectives of determining the rumen degradation properties. Results showed that H. abyssinica presented the highest DM disappearance from the nylon bags throughout the different incubation times followed by F. natalensis and R. natalensis showed the lowest. The DM readily available soluble fraction (a), insoluble but degradable fraction (b), degradation rate (c), potential degradability (PD) and effective degradability (ED) differed significantly (P

Aims: To determine the phytochemicals and cytotoxicity of methanolic crude extracts of Carissa edulis, Azadirachta indica, Cassia siamea and Harrisonia abyssinica, from Masumbi village, Siaya county-Kenya. Original Research Article Leonard et al.; JSRR, 10(3): 1-10, 2016; Article no.JSRR.23819 2 Study Design: Qualitative analysis of the phytochemicals and brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay were done using standard procedures. Place and Duration of Study: Plant samples were collected from Masumbi village, Siaya countyKenya. Botanical identification of the plants’ samples was done in the Department of Biological Sciences, Egerton University and their voucher samples deposited in the departmental herbarium. Extraction, concentration, spotting and phytochemical analysis were carried out at the Department of Chemistry, Egerton University-Kenya. Methodology: Chemical tests were done to determine the class of phytochemicals present in the methanolic crude extracts while brine shrimp cytotoxicity assay was carried out to predict the potential toxicity of the methanolic plant extracts. Results: Extracts of four different species of plants were analyzed for their phytochemical composition. Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids were detected in the extracts. The methanolic crude extracts had LC5O values between 198.498 and 450.022 μg/ml, and were categorized as being cytotoxic. Conclusion: In the current study the methanolic crude extracts demonstrated LC50 values less than 1000 μg/ml indicating that these plants extracts were cytotoxic.

This study was designed to investigate the antibacterial activity of selected medicinal plants used by the Genta Meyche community in Southern Ethiopia. Ethnomedicinal data was collected from 25 herbalists through semi-structured interviews and observations. Based on the highest use value (UV), plants were selected to be tested on pathogenic bacteria. A total of 26 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 17 families were collected and identified. The extraction of active compounds from the selected plants was carried out using five solvents. Roots (30.8 %) and leaves (26.9 %) were the plant parts most frequently used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders (GIDs). Herbalists mostly prepared medicinal plants as juice (57.7 %) and administered the juice through oral routes (92.3 %). Solanum incanum L. (UV = 0.44), Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. (UV = 0.36), Hydnora abyssinia A.Br. (UV = 0.36) and Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link. (UV = 0.32) were found to be the most frequently used medicinal plants in the study area. These plants showed a promising broad spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative test bacteria with growth inhibition zone and minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) values ranging from 7.40 ± 0.60 - 16.81 ± 2.03 mm and 156 - 2500 μg/mL, respectively. Among solvents, ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts showed significantly greater antibacterial activity than aqueous, acetone and chloroform extracts. Steroids, tannins, saponin, flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenoids were identified as bioactive compounds in most of the tested plants. Unused parts of Solanum incanum L. and Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. were investigated and results exhibited potential candidacy with inhibition zones of 7.1 - 13.7 and 10.2 - 15.3 mm, respectively. Overall, the results of this study provide evidence for the treatment of GIDs by using traditional medicinal plants used by the Genta Meyche community to act against pathogenic bacteria.

The practice of traditional medicine, especially herbal medicine, is still prevalent across the African continent. Yet, their in-depth pharmacological and chemical exploitation by the scientific community remain a necessity. The aim of the present study was to investigate into the phenolic components, antioxidant, and enzyme-inhibitory activities of three solvent extracts (ethyl acetate, methanol, and water) of the stem bark of four African plant species (Senna siamea, Distemonanthus benthamianus, Harrisonia abyssinica, and Pycnanthus angolensis). It was found that D. benthamianus followed by P. angolensis, displayed the highest DPPH and ABTS scavenging, ferric and cupric reducing, and total antioxidant capacity in the phosphomolybdenum assay. A similar result was observed for AChE, BChE, and tyrosinase inhibition. The two plants also showed comparable α-amylase inhibitory effect. On the other hand, H. abyssinica showed high metal chelating and α-glucosidase inhibition. Among the solvents used, the methanol extract seemed to be the most bioactive. In addition, TPC was highest in D. benthamianus (135.33–192.29 mg GAE/g) while P. angolensis was richest in TFC (7.68–12.48 mg RE/g). A range of bioactive compounds were identified in the extracts, with variations observed among the plants. Senna siamea stem bark showed the presence of nine compounds; where flavonoids (e.g. naringenin, kaempferol, dihydroquercetin) were recorded. Genistein (m/z 271.06), procyanidin B (m/z 577.13) and C (m/z 865.19) isomers were common in stem barks extracts of D. benthamianus and P. Angolensis. To conclude, D. benthamianus and P. angolensis can be considered as potential pharmaceutical agents or functional food components that could reduce the risks of oxidative stress-related disorders.

Background: Plants are new sources of antibacterial agents, hence the need to determine and evaluate the antibacterial properties, antioxidant activity and gas chromatography – mass spectrometer (GC-MS) profile of medicinal plants. Methodology: In this study, sequential extraction of Prunus africana and Harrisonia abyssinica was used to obtain ethyl acetate and methanol extracts. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), whereas the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were estimated using Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminium chloride, respectively. Antibacterial properties of the extracts against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans were estimated using the disc diffusion method and compared against streptomycin. Results: Screening of crude methanolic extracts revealed the presence of secondary metabolites which was further confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) characterisation that revealed the presence of H-bonded OH functional groups. The extracts revealed that P. africana had a higher total phenolic and total flavonoid contents compared to H. abyssinica . Methanolic extracts of both plants had moderate activity against selected microorganisms and both inhibited DPPH radical scavenging activity. GC-MS analysis of P. africana and H. abyssinica extracts revealed the presence of several phytochemicals that have been reported to have medicinal uses. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents showed positive correlations with the DPPH radical scavenging activity and negative correlations with EC 50 . Conclusion: Prunus africana and H. abyssinica extracts had moderate antimicrobial properties against the selected microorganisms because of the presence of secondary metabolites.

Background: Increased resistance against antimicrobial medication used to combat bacterial infection necessitates the need for alternative medication. Objective: This study seeks to evaluate the antimicrobial potential and phytochemical profiles of 10 medicinal plants collected from Chuka, Tharaka-Nithi County of Kenya. Plant samples were collected, dried, pulverised into fine powders and extracted with distilled water. Methodology: Qualitative phytochemical screening and disc-agar diffusion methods were used according to standard method to determine phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extracts against four bacterial strains and a fungus. Results: Phytochemical investigation revealed the presence of terpenoids, tannins and reducing sugars in all the plants except one. Saponins were found to be present in Albizia anthelmintica, Entada leptostachya, Raponae rhododendroides and Warbugia ugandensis . Steroids were present in seven plants while alkaloids were present in five. Albizia anthelmintica, E. leptostachya and W. ugandensis extracts were active against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. Escherichia coli was the most susceptible bacteria against all the plant extracts tested, except Harrisonia abyssinica. Vernonia lasiopus and Uvariodendron anisatum were the least active extracts. Susceptibility against E. coli and C. albicans was significantly comparable to benzathine penicillin and streptomycin. Conclusion: The type of ailments the plants are claimed to treat can be attributed to the presence of various classes of phytochemicals. In conclusion, the plants evaluated were found to be active against the microorganisms tested.

Until now, about 400 different natural seven-membered terpenoid lactones have been isolated from a broad spectrum of organisms. The majority (245) of the reported compounds occurred in plants. A significant number (101) of the sevenmembered lactones were isolated from marine organisms. The fewest (22) were secondary metabolites of microorganisms. Thus, oxepanones are confirmed to be widely distributed natural compounds that play various biological roles in diverse living organisms. Research on the biological activities of the principal isolated 2-oxepanones showed that most of them exhibit antimicrobial, antifeedant, insecticidal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Several of them are used in agriculture as plant growth inhibitors. For example, limonoids isolated from Harrisonia abyssinica suppressed sprouting of seeds of the pathogenic plant Striga, which parasitizes the root system of crops and reduces the yields of grains and beans [1]. Derivatives of natural seven-membered lactones are also used in pharmacology. Thus, the limonoid prieurianin, which was isolated from Entandrophragma candolei (Meliaceae), could be used to prevent obesity even in diabetes patients [2]. Chiisanogenin obtained from the alcohol extract of Acanthopanax (Eleutherococcus) senticosus is a biologically active constituent that treats diseases associated with glycation [3]. Despite definite success, information on the biological properties of natural seven-membered terpene lactones is still limited. Further research could embellish the understanding of their mechanisms of biogenesis and their biological roles in nature and medicine. The goal of the present review was to organize information on seven-membered terpene lactones with respect to their structures, occurrence in nature, synthetic accessibility, and pharmacological activity. 1. Natural seven-membered terpene lactones: structures, occurrence in nature, and biological activity

Interest in herbal drugs is undergoing a renaissance at present time. Herbal agents are regarded to be more effective and comparatively safe as opposed to conventional medications which are relatively inaccessible and arguably associated with various adverse effects. Harrisonia abyssinica and Landolphia buchananii have been used by the Ameru and Embu communities to alleviate various ailments. However, despite their wide folklore use, extensive literature research reveals limited scientific evaluation of their described effects. Thus, the current study aimed to evaluate the antipyretic effects of their methanolic extracts. The plant samples were sourced from Mbeere, Embu County, Kenya. The test subjects (experimental rats) were grouped into four; normal group, a negative control group, reference group and experimental groups. The experimental groups were treated with stem bark extracts at concentration of 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg. The determination of antipyretic activities was evaluated by using a 20% turpentine solution as the pyrexia inducing agent and then compared with aspirin as the reference drug. H. abyssinica extract reduced the rectal temperature by between 0.90% and 1.73% while L. buchananii extract reduced it by between 0.32% and 2.52%. Aspirin reduced the elevated rectal temperature by 1.70% and 2.32%. Qualitative phytochemical screening results showed that the extracts possessed several phytochemicals. The results of the study have confirmed the folklore use of the aforementioned plants in the suppression of pyrexia.

Aim of the study In Africa, medicinal plants are used intensively and concomitantly with allopathic medicines in the treatment of opportunity diseases by many patients or by healthy person to prevent diseases. However, there is little information about the interactions between medicines and botanical products used currently in West Africa area. Therefore, the aim of the present investigation is to study the effect of some plant products on CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and CYP3A7, three individual enzymes of CYP3A subfamily, in vitro. Materials and methods Teas and ethanolic extracts of medicinal, food and co-administered plants were evaluated on CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and CYP3A7 individual enzymes in vitro using fluorometric assays. Results Extracts of adjuvant plants such as Aframomum cuspidatum, and Aframomum melegueta, as well as one medicinal plant (Harrisonia abyssinica) inhibited CYP3A4, CYP3A5 and CYP3A7 activity more than 90%. Phyllanthus amarus showed high inhibition of CYP3A5 and CYP3A7. Food plants (Solanum macrocarpon and Talinum triangulare) inhibited CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 less than 20%. Conclusion These results indicate that plants tested in this study affect in vitro the activity of the main three CYP3A subfamily enzymes. These active plants could interfere with the metabolism at phase I of conventional drugs in vivo as well act as pharmacoenhancers in herbal mixtures.

Eleven medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Machakos and Kitui District were screened, namely: Ajuga remota Benth, Aloe secundiflora Engl, Amaranthus hybridus L, Cassia didymobotrya Fes, Croton macrostachyus Del, Entada leptostachya Harms, Erythrina abyssinica DC, Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv, Schkuhria pinnata O. Ktze, Terminalia kilimandscharica Engl and Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst for potential antibacterial activity against four medically important bacterial strains, namely: Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Micrococcus lutea ATCC 9341 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. The antibacterial activity of methanol extracts was determined as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The plant extracts were more active against Gram-positive (G+) than Gram-negative (G-) bacteria. The positive controls were streptomycin and benzylpenicillin for G- and G+ bacteria, respectively, both had a significant MIC at

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The people of Karamoja of northern Uganda chiefly rely on ethnoveterinary knowledge (EVK) to control common livestock health problems. In spite of cattle's central role in Karamojong culture and livelihoods, there has been no systematic recording of their ethnoveterinary plant-based cures to date. Aim of study: To document the remedies used to treat livestock diseases, their preparation and administration. Methods: Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided questionnaires, group discussions, direct observations and collection trips. Results: We present information on 209 plant species and 18 non-plant materials. Plant species are distributed over 116 genera and 54 families. The most common medicinal use was treatment against anaplasmosis. Balanites aegyptiacus, Carissa spinarum, Warburgia salutaris and Harrisonia abyssinica had the most uses of all species. All different plant parts were used; bark and underground parts were exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most remedies listed used a single ingredient, typically soaked in water; only 12.8% remedies used multiple plants. The route of administration was primarily oral followed by topical applications. Almost all plants are collected from the wild; none of the few cultivated plants used had been planted for medicinal purposes. Conclusions: The pastoralists in the study site possess a wealth of EVK which they use to maintain animal health. Their rich knowledge and high diversity of plants were recorded here for the first time.

The relationship between construction materials used and longevity of traditional houses in three parishes adjacent to Kibale National Park in western Uganda was explored. Based on (i) resistance to termite attack, (ii) resistance to insect borers, (iii) rot resistance, (iv) wood that splits well, (v) the wood fibre not entangled, (vi) easy workability, (vii) weight, (viii) straight poles, (ix) availability within 2 km radius and (x) durability, 67 species were recorded, of which 43 are trees, nine climbers, ten shrubs and five herbs. Durable wood resistant to fungal attack, termites and woodborers is preferred in addition to being hard, straight and easy to work with a machete. Ranked high among the wild species are Harrisonia abyssinica Oliver, Millettia dura Dunn., Blighia unijugata Baker and Aegelopsis eggelingii M. R. F. Taylor. The commonly extracted pole sizes are between 5 and 12 cm dbh. Preferred wild ropes to fasten wattle, that are resistant to termites, include Cryptolepis sanguinoleta R. Br., Motandra sp., Urera trinervis (Hochst.) Friis & Imm., Paullinia pinnata L. and Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl. Longevity of houses greatly depended on the wall finishing by plastering with sand/wood ash and cow dung as well as the thatch material used: with the average life span of 14.7 years for grass-thatched, 20 years for papyrus and 29.9 years for iron-roofed houses.

In order to discover and develop novel signaling inhibitors from plants, a screening system was established targeting the two-component system of Cryptococcus neoformans by using the wild type and a calcineurin mutant of C. neoformans, based on the counter-regulatory action of high-osmolarity glycerol (Hog1) mitogen-activated protein kinase and the calcineurin pathways in C. neoformans. Among 10,000 plant extracts, that from Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. exhibited the most potent inhibitory activity against C. neoformans var. grubii H99 with fludioxonil. Bioassay-guided fractionation was used to isolate two bioactive compounds from H. abyssinica, and these compounds were identified as chebulagic acid and chebulanin using spectroscopic methods. These compounds specifically inhibited the calcineurin pathway in C. neoformans. Moreover, they exhibited potent antifungal activities against various human pathogenic fungi with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.25 to over 64 µg/ml.

Deoxyobacunone (1), a new limonoid with a double bond in ring D, has been isolated from the root bark of Harrisonia abyssinica collected in Nigeria. Also, the known limonoids obacunone (2), harrisonin (3), 12beta-acetoxyharrisonin (4), and pedonin (5) have been isolated. The structure of 1 was assigned unambiguously by spectral data analysis. Under laboratory conditions, 10(-3)-10(-5) M concentrations of compounds 1-5 exhibited significant stimulatory activity (12-98%) against conditioned Striga hermonthica seeds. This study provided useful insight regarding the functionalities required for activity of limonoids against Striga seeds. The variation in activity was rationalized through quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models based on several molecular descriptors including van der Waals volume (VDW(v)), molecular polarizability (alpha), dipole moment (mu), log P, and the differences between the highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (HOMO-LUMO gap).

A new tetranortriterpenoid, 11 β ,12 β -diacetoxyharrisonin, together with the known atalantolide, obacunone, harrisonin, 12 β -acetoxyharrisonin, pedonin, cneorin R and perforaquassin A have been isolated from the root bark of Harrisonia abyssinica . The structure of the new compound which is based on a rearranged tetranortriterpenoid with a five membered ring-B and a seco ring-A and D was assigned on the basis of extensive NMR studies and X-ray diffraction analysis. In addition, the structure and relative configuration of the known perforaquassin A was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis.

Seven medicinal plant extracts traditionally used in Kenya, mainly for management of infectious conditions, were chosen and screened for their antibacterial activity against Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. Antibacterial activity was tested using the broth dilution method. Harrisonia abyssinica and Terminalia kilimandscharica extracts showed significant activity against Gram+ and Gram- bacteria. The methanolic extracts of T. kilimandscharica bark and H. abyssinica bark and leaves showed minimum inhibitory activity against all tested bacteria, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 25-150 mg/mL. Ajuga remota and Amaranthus hybridus, which are lethal to brine shrimp nauplii, showed significantly lower antibacterial activity than those that were relatively non-toxic.

The study focussed on four limonoids (calodendrolide, harrisonin, pedonin and pyroangolensolide) as larvicidal components against mosquito 2nd instar larvae of the species Aedes aegypti Linn. senso stricto. Since pyroangolensolide is close to calodendrolide in structure, it was synthesized through reduction of calodendrolide with chromium(II) chloride in acetone. Harrisonin and pedonin were extracted with cold methanol from the root bark of Harrisonia abyssinica while calodendrolide was extracted with the same solvent from the root bark of Calodendrum capense. The structure of pyroangolensolide was elucidated using physical and spectroscopic techniques. 25, 50, 75, and 100 μm of each compound were tested against the mosquito larvae. Calodendrolide was the most toxic since 100% mortality was registered at all concentrations, while pyroangolensolide showed 100% mortality up to 50 μm and for contents of 25 μm, a mortality of 70% was registered. As a result of this toxicity, lower concentrations (5, 10 and 15 μm) were tested for both calodendrolide and pyroangolensolide. Toxicity of harrisonin and pedonin was lower. The relative toxicity was in the order: calodendrolide > pyroangolensolide >harrisonin > pedonin with LC50 values of 13.2, 16.6, 28.1 and 59.2 μm, respectively.

In an ethnopharmacological survey, extracts of the six East African medicinal plants Entada abyssinica (stem bark), Terminalia spinosa (young branches), Harrisonia abyssinica (roots), Ximenia caffra (roots), Azadirachta indica (stem bark and leaves), and Spilanthes mauritiana (roots and flowers) were tested against 105 strains of bacteria from seven genera ( Staphylococcus , Enterococcus , Pseudomonas , Escherichia , Klebsiella , Salmonella , Mycobacterium ). The minimum inhibitory concentration reached by 50% (MIC 50% ) and 90% (MIC 90% ) of the strains for the extracts of E. abyssinica , T. spinosa , X. caffra , and A. indica (stem bark) ranged from 0.13–8 mg/ml and from 0.5 to >8 mg/ml, respectively. Their minimum bactericidal concentration by 50% (MBC 50% ) and MBC 90% were all between 0.5 and >8 mg/ml. H. abyssinica , A. indica (leaves), and S. mauritiana (roots and flowers) had MIC and MBC values ≥8 mg/ml. Mycobacteria were not inhibited at extract concentrations of 0.5–2 mg/ml. lt is concluded that plant extracts with low MIC and MBC values may serve as sources for compounds with therapeutic potency.

The structures of the known limonoids harrisonin (1) and 12β-acetoxyharrisonin (2), isolated from the root bark of Harrisonia abyssinica, were reanalyzed by modern 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic methods, and the molecular structure and relative configuration of 12β-acetoxyharrisonin were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The spectral findings obtained require revision of the structures of these compounds from 1 and 2 to 3 and 4, respectively. The new molecular structures 3 and 4 display a novel limonoid skeleton with a unique five-membered ring B.

Summary Extracts of the bark and the root of Harrisonia abyssinica exhibited in vitro antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial and molluscicidal activities. Bioassay-guided fractionation resulted in the isolation of the active compounds.

The ripe berries of Harrisonia abyssinica yielded two new prenylated acetophenones, namely 5-(ethan-1‴-one)-4,6-dihydroxy-7-(3″, 3″-dimethylallyl)-2S-(1′S-hydroxy-1′,5′-dimethylhex- 4′-enyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran (1) and 5-(2″′-hydroxyethan- 1″′-one)-4,6-dihydroxy-7-(3″,3″-dimethylallyl) -2S-(1′S-hydroxy-1′,5′-dimethylhex-4′-enyl)-2, 3-dihydrobenzofuran (2), herein named harronin I and harronin II, respectively. The compounds were isolated following activity guided fractionation and the structures were determined using 1D, 2D NMR spectroscopic, CD and MS spectrometric techniques. The methanol-dichloromethane mixture (1: 1 v/v) crude extract exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Lactobacillus casei. Harronin I (1) showed a MIC of 5 μg/mL against C. albicans, 6 μg/mL against B. cereus, and more than 20 μg/mL against other tested microorganisms. Harronin II (2) showed much weaker MIC values (> 100 μg/mL) against all the tested microorganisms. © Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart.

Objectif : Connaitre les plantes medicinales antimicrobiennes du Departement de Transua, evaluer l’activite antifongique et la toxicite de l’espece la plus sollicitee afin d’aider les populations et surtout les immunodeprimes. Methodes et resultats : Une etude ethnobotanique menee dans le Departement de Transua a l’aide de questionnaires a permis de recueillir des informations sur les usages therapeutiques des plantes antimicrobiennes de la region. Elle a permis d’inventorier onze especes de plantes. Le taxon Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. (Simaroubaceae), est le plus sollicite. La methode de double dilution en tubes penches sur gelose Sabouraud a ete utilisee pour l’evaluation de l’activite antifongique des extraits de cette plante. Les extraits ethanolique (EE70%) et residuel aqueux (ERA) de feuilles testes possedent une activite antifongique. EE70% est le plus actif (la CMI = 0,781 mg/ml, la CI50 = 0,08 mg/ml et la CMF = 50 mg/ml). De plus l’etude de la toxicite sur les cellules HFF de EE70% a revele qu’il n’est pas cytotoxique. Conclusion et application : Ces resultats revelent que le Departement de Transua renferme des plantes antimicrobiennes. Harrisonia abyssinica possedent une activite antifongique et n’est pas toxiques sur les cellules humaines. Cela suggere une certaine securite d’emploi de ces substances vegetales dans le traitement traditionnel des mycoses. Mots-cles : Mycoses, Harrisonia abyssinica, Candida albicans , Cellules HFF, Transua. Ethnobotanical survey , in vitro antifungal activity on Candida albicans and toxicity on HFF cells of Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. (Simaroubaceae), Ivoirian pharmacopoeia plant. ABSTRACT Objective : To know the antimicrobial medicinal plants used in Transua Department, to evaluate antifungal activity and the toxicity of the most appropriate specie in order to help people and especially those immunocompromised and suffering from opportunistic diseases. Methods and Results : An ethnobotanical survey was conducted in Transua Department using a questionnaire revealed eleven species of antimicrobial medicinal plants. The Harrisonia abyssinica taxon is most stressed. Antifungal activity was tested using double dilution method in angle sloping tubes on Sabouraud Agar. Ethanolic (EE70%) and residue (ERA) extracts of leaves tested exhibit antifungal activity. EE70% was the most active (MIC = 0.781 mg/ml, IC50 = 0.08 mg/ml and MFC = 50 mg/ml). In addition, the study of toxicity on cells HFF of EE70% revealed that it is not cytotoxic. Conclusion and application : These results show that Department of Transua contain antimicrobial plants. Harrisonia abyssinica has antifungal activity and it not toxic on human cells. This suggests some safety of these vegetable substances in the traditional treatment of mycoses. Keywords : Mycoses, Harrisonia abyssinica, Candida albicans , HFF Cells, Transua.

A new tetranortriterpenoid, 11 β ,12 β -diacetoxyharrisonin, together with the known atalantolide, obacunone, harrisonin, 12 β -acetoxyharrisonin, pedonin, cneorin R and perforaquassin A have been isolated from the root bark of Harrisonia abyssinica . The structure of the new compound which is based on a rearranged tetranortriterpenoid with a five membered ring-B and a seco ring-A and D was assigned on the basis of extensive NMR studies and X-ray diffraction analysis. In addition, the structure and relative configuration of the known perforaquassin A was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis.

Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae) is widely distributed and used in traditional medicine in Tanzania. Phytochemical studies of the plant report the presence of steroid and limonoid compounds while much of its biological studies were concentrated on its pharmacological activity on human pathogens. In the present study, eight extracts from plant materials collected from the Moist forest mosaic (Zone I) and the Coastal forest and thicket zone (Zone II) were tested against C ulex quinquefascintus Say larvae. Detailed analysis of mosquito larvicidal activity of the eight extracts showed a dose dependent (p>0.05) trend with the dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of the root bark plant materials collected from Zone I having higher effectiveness. In 24 h, the dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of the root bark from Zone I achieved mortality of 90% and 100%, respectively, at 50 ppm. Likewise, at 5 ppm the two extracts were having 60% and 58% mortality, both been not significant different (p>0.05) but significantly different (p © 2010 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Key words: Harrisonia abbysinica , Simaroubaceae, Limonoids, Harrissonin, Pedonin, Larvicides, Cytotoxic

Use of multi-plant extracts against infectious diseases is increasing in rural Tanzania. The study evaluated this ethnomedicinal practice by using mixed root extracts of Carisa edulis, Ximenia caffra, Harrisonia abyssinica and Euclea natalensis against single extracts of the same plants. Disc diffusion assay and Tube dilution techniques were used to compare bioactivity of plant extracts in-vitro. The ANOVA test indicated significant difference (P0.05) between these extracts types. Multi-plant extracts had inhibition zones of up to 26 mm as compared to 14 mm for single extracts. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration for multi-plant extract was 8.3 microg/ml against 69 microg/ml for single extracts. Multi-plant extracts inhibited all the five test bacterial species while single extracts inhibited three species. Eight out of ten multi-plant extracts (80%) were bactericidal while only two out of four single extracts (50%) were bactericidal. Generally, multi-plant extracts were more superior over single plant extracts and could be developed into more potent antibiotics against resistant pathogens.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The people of Karamoja of northern Uganda chiefly rely on ethnoveterinary knowledge (EVK) to control common livestock health problems. In spite of cattle’s central role in Karamojong culture and livelihoods, there has been no systematic recording of their ethnoveterinary plant-based cures to date. Aim of study: To document the remedies used to treat livestock diseases, their preparation and administration. Methods:Datawere collectedusing semi-structured interviews, guidedquestionnaires, groupdiscussions, direct observations and collection trips. Results: We present information on 209 plant species and 18 non-plant materials. Plant species are distributed over 116 genera and 54 families. The most common medicinal use was treatment against anaplasmosis. Balanites aegyptiacus, Carissa spinarum, Warburgia salutaris and Harrisonia abyssinica had themostusesof all species.All differentplantpartswereused;barkandundergroundpartswereexploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most remedies listed used a single ingredient, typically soaked in water; only 12.8% remedies usedmultiple plants. The route of administrationwas primarily oral followed by topical applications. Almost all plants are collected from the wild; none of the few cultivated plants used had been planted for medicinal purposes. Conclusions: The pastoralists in the study site possess a wealth of EVK which they use to maintain animal dge a health. Their rich knowle

Medicinal plants used to treat infectious diseases in Bunda district, Tanzania, were screened for activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1, IIIB strain) and Type 2 (HIV-2, ROD strain). Antiplasmodial activity was observed for the 80 % MeOH extract of Ormocarpum kirkii (root; MIC = 31.25 microg/mL), Combretum adenogonium (leaves), Euphorbia tirucalli (root), Harrisonia abyssinica (root), Rhynchosia sublobata (root), Sesbania sesban (root), Tithonia diversifolia (leaves), and Vernonia cinerascens (leaves; MIC value of 62.5 microg/mL). With regard to HIV, 80 % MeOH extracts of Barleria eranthemoides (root), Combretum adenogonium (leaves and stem bark), Elaeodedron schlechteranum (stem bark and root bark), Lannea schweinfurthii (stem bark), Terminalia mollis (stem bark and root bark), Acacia tortilis (stem bark), Ficus cycamorus (stem bark) and Indigofera colutea (shoot), as well as H2O extracts from Barleria eranthemoides (root), Combretum adenogonium (leaves and stem bark), and Terminalia mollis (stem bark and root bark) exhibited IC50 values below 10 microg/mL against HIV-1 (IIIB strain). The highest anti-HIV-1 activity value was obtained for the B. eranthemoides 80 % MeOH root extract (IC50 value 2.1 microg/mL). Only a few extracts were active against HIV-2, such as the 80 % MeOH extract from Lannea schweinfurthii (stem bark) and Elaeodedron schlechteranum (root bark), showing IC50 values < 10 microg/mL.

A total of 418 healers have been interviewed in Guinea, a coastal country of West Africa, ranging between 7°30 and 12°30 of northern latitude and 8° and 15° of western longitude. Plant species used by the local inhabitants to treat infectious diseases were identified using ethnobotanical, ethnographic and taxonomic methods. During these investigations, 218 plants were registered, of which the following were the most frequently used: Erythrina senegalensis , Bridelia ferruginea , Crossopteryx febrifuga , Ximenia americana , Annona senegalensis , Cochlospermum tinctorium , Cochlospermum planchonii , Lantana camara , Costus afer , Psidium guajava , Terminalia glaucescens , Uapaca somon and Swartzia madagascariensis . Most plants, and especially the leaves, were essentially used as a decoction. In order to assess antibacterial activity, 190 recipes were prepared and biologically tested, among which six showed activity (minimal inhibitory concentration Bacillus cereus , Mycobacterium fortuitum , Staphylococcus aureus , or Candida albicans , i.e., Entada africana , Chlorophora regia , Erythrina senegalensis , Harrisonia abyssinica , Uvaria tomentosa , and a mixture of six plants consisting of Swartzia madagascariensis , Isoberlinia doka , Annona senegalensis , Gardenia ternifolia , Terminalia glaucescens and Erythrina senegalensis .

The activity of extracts from the East African medicinal plants Entada abyssinica (stem bark), Terminalia spinosa (young branches), Harrisonia abyssinica (roots), Ximenia caffra (roots), Azadirachta indica (leaves and stem bark) and Spilanthes mauritiana (roots and flowers) were evaluated against 12 strains of Helicobacter pylori. The most active extracts were those derived from T. spinosa with an MIC50 of 125 μg/ml, an MIC90 of 250 μg/ml and an MIC range of 62.5–500 μg/ml. An MIC50 of 250 μg/ml and an MIC90 of > 4,000 μg/ml was reached by H. abyssinica with a range of 125– > 4,000 μg/ml and by X. caffra with a range of 62.5– > 4,000 μg/ml, respectively. It is concluded that these plants contain compounds with antimicrobial activity against H pylori.

Methanolic extracts of six medicinal plants, Entada abyssinica (stem bark), Terminalia spinosa (young branches), Harrisonia abyssinica (roots), Ximenia caffra (roots), Azadirachta indica (stem bark) and Spilanthes mauritiana (roots) were tested against 35 strains of bacteria from four genera ( Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella and Mycobacteria ). The minimum inhibitory concentration reached by 50% (MIC 50 ) and 90% (MBC 90 ) were between 1–8 mg/ml and 1–>8 mg/ml. H. abyssinica extracts had low activity on salmonella spp. (>8 mg/ml) but were quite active against the other arganisms (0.25–2 mg/ml). S. mauritiana was barely active since most values were >8 mg/ml. Mycobacteria spp. such as M. avium, M. chelonae and M. intracellulare were inhibited at between 90–100% by H. abyssinica, E. abyssinica, T. spinosa, X. caffra and A. indica . It is concluded that carefully guided extraction and characterization of these plant compounds may yield useful antibiotic principles. Journal of Tropical Microbiology Vol.1(1) 2002: 29-35

A new cycloterpene, 4beta,14-dimethyl-9,19-cyclo-5alpha,9beta-ergost-24(28)-en-3-one (cycloabyssinone) (1), and a known terpene, 3-friedelanone, were isolated from stem bark of Harrisonia abyssinica and identified by spectroscopic methods.

In addition to the known sterols and ketosteroids beta-sitosterol (24 alpha-ethylcholest-5-en-3 beta-ol), stigmasterol (24 alpha-ethylcholesta-5,22-dien-3 beta-ol), campesterol (24 alpha-methylcholest-5-en-3 beta-ol), beta-sitostenone (stigmast-4-en-3-one, 24 alpha-ethylcholest-4-en-3-one), stigmastenone (stigmasta-4,22-dien-3-one, 24 alpha-ethylcholesta-4,22-dien-3-one), campestenone (24 alpha-methylcholest-4-en-3-one), and stigmasta-3,5-dien-7-one (24 alpha-ethylcholesta-3,5-dien-7-one), the new steroids stigmasta-3,5,22-trien-7-one (24 alpha-ethylcholesta-3,5,22-trien-7-one), and campesta-3,5-dien-7-one (24 alpha-methylcholesta-3,5-dien-7-one) were isolated from the stem bark of Harrisonia abyssinica and identified by NMR and mass spectrometry.

The antiplasmodial activity of plant extracts related to four families was tested on chloroquine sensitive strain 3D7 and chloroquine resistant strain Dd2 of Plasmodium falciparum. The methanolic extract of Harrisonia abyssinica (Simaroubaceae) inhibited Dd2 with IC 50 value of 4.7 μ g/ml, while in 3D7, the IC 50 value was 10 μ g/ml. Most of the plants from the family Meliaceae showed highly potent antiplasmodial activity against the two tested strains. Khaya senegalensis, Azadirachta indica and Trichilia emetica showed IC 50 values less than 5 μ g/ml. The methanolic extract of Annona squamosa (Annonaceae) leaves showed high antiplasmodial activity with IC 50 values of 2 and 30 μ g/ml on 3D7 and Dd2, respectively. While stem bark showed moderate activity with IC 50 values of 8.5 and 120 μ g/ml on Dd2. Maytenus senegalensis ( Celastraceae ) possessed IC 50 values of 3.9 on 3D7, 10 μ g/ml on Dd2 and had no effect on lymphocyte proliferation even at the highest tested concentration; the IC 50 was greater than 100 μ g/ml. Liquid-liquid separation of the methanolic extract of M. senegalensis revealed that the dichloromethane extract possessed an IC 50 value of only 2.1 μ g/ml. Column fractionation of dichloromethane extract gave four fractions and fraction two showed an IC 50 value of 0.5 μ g/ml. Preliminary phytochemical analysis of dichloromethane fraction revealed terpenoids and traces of phenolic principles but no alkaloid, tannins or flavonoids were detected.

Fractionation of the n-hexane extract of the leaves of Harrisonia abyssinica, collected in Guinea, afforded three novel and unusual prenylated polyketides, which were named oumarone (1), bissaone (2), and aissatone (3). Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, mainly 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy.