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The objective of this study was to evaluate under field conditions, whether daily administration of oregano essential oil is effective in preventing and/or diminishing the severity of neonatal diarrhea syndrome in calves aged less than 15 days. Ninety-one newborn calves from three dairy farms were assigned into two groups; “Eco” group (n = 46) calves were drenched with Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. Hirtum) essential oil (ECODIAR® liquid 5%) at the dose of 12.5 mg/kg body weight once per day until the age of 10 days. “Conts” group (n = 45) calves were left untreated and served as controls. All animals were monitored daily for the incidence of diarrhea until the age of 15 days and their fecal score was recorded. Fecal samples were collected on days 3, 6 and 10 for microbiological and parasitological evaluation. Average fecal score throughout the experiment, incidence of diarrhea, duration and severity of diarrhea episodes were significantly lower in Eco group compared to the controls. Daily administration of oregano essential oil in calves for the first 10 days of their life effectively diminishes the severity of naturally acquired diarrhea under field conditions and, under certain hygiene practices, possess a preventive effect against neonatal diarrhea syndrome., Highlights • We evaluated the efficacy of oregano essential oil against calf neonatal diarrhea syndrome. • Ninety-one calves from 3 farms were assigned in to two groups. • Oregano essential oil was orally drenched (12.5 mg/kg) once per day from birth until day 10. • Diarrhea incidence was significantly lower in calves receiving oregano oil than the controls. • The severity of diarrhea was significantly lower in calves receiving oregano oil than the controls.

Background Determination of serum total protein concentration is commonly performed by the biuret method. Refractometric measurement is a faster and less expensive alternative but its accuracy has not been determined in ruminants. Objective The purpose of the study was to compare the serum total protein concentrations in cattle, sheep, and goats measured by the biuret method with those obtained by refractometry. Methods Serum total protein concentration was determined in 120 cattle, 67 sheep, and 58 goat blood samples refractometrically and with the biuret method. The data were analyzed with a paired samples t-test, and Passing and Bablok regression equations and Bland and Altman plots were generated. Results There was a strong linear relationship between the total protein values determined with the refractometer and the biuret method in cattle, sheep, and goats. The statistical accuracy, which represents a bias correction factor that measures the deviation of the best-fit line from the 45° line through the origin, was 90.63% for cattle, 93.05% for sheep, and 91.76% for goats. The mean protein values determined with the refractometer were significantly lower than those measured with the biuret method in cattle and goats (P .05). Conclusions The evaluated refractometer was sufficiently accurate for the determination of serum total proteins in cattle, sheep, and goats, although it cannot be used interchangeably with the biuret method. The RIs should be corrected for negative bias based on the created equations.

The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of measuring body temperature in sheep using a noncontact infrared thermometer on the inguinal area and the eye cornea in comparison with a rectal digital thermometer. The trial for the first comparison was conducted in the milking parlor in 52 ewes in full lactation and 15 dry ewes and for the second one in 51 ewes. The body temperature measured with the noncontact infrared thermometer in the inguinal area, although significantly lower, was strongly linearly correlated with that of the rectal digital one in both ewes in full lactation and dry ewes. In lactating ewes, besides the high precision, the highest accuracy was also recorded and the plotted differences were within clinically insignificant levels. The corneal temperatures were highly correlated but were significantly lower compared to the rectal ones. Due to these differences the cut-off point of 37.9 °C was estimated to be adopted for the detection of the hyperthermic animals when noncontact infrared thermometers are applied to the eye cornea for the measurement of body temperature. In conclusion the inguinal area of the dry ewes and the eye cornea cannot be recommended as appropriate sites for body temperature measurement because the temperatures recorded are biased by external factors. The noncontact infrared thermometer evaluated is sufficiently accurate for the measurement of body temperature in sheep only when applied in the inguinal area of sheep in full lactation.

Selenium (Se), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) play important antioxidant role during the transition period of dairy cattle. However, there is limited information about their blood fluctuations during the entire transition period, especially in heifers. Furthermore, it is questionable whether the use of clinoptilolite, a natural zeolite, affects the availability of these trace elements during this period. The objective of the present study was to monitor the blood concentrations of Se, Cu, and Zn during the transition period of dairy heifers and to investigate whether the dietary inclusion of clinoptilolite has any effect on them. Forty clinically healthy Holstein heifers were used in the experiment. They were randomly allocated in two equal groups (n = 20) formed according to their body condition score. The control group was fed only the basal ration whereas the daily feed of treatment group was supplemented with 200 g clinoptilolite. The experiment started 28 days before the expected day of calving and lasted until day 21 after parturition. Blood samples were taken at the onset of the experiment and then at weekly intervals until parturition, at the day of calving, and on days 7, 14, and 21. All samples were analyzed for blood Se and plasma Cu and Zn concentrations. The results indicate that the levels of Se, Cu, and Zn in blood change significantly (P 0.05). Blood levels of Se, Cu, and Zn, although undergoing significant changes throughout the transition period in dairy heifers, remain practically stable until parturition and increase significantly immediately after calving. Clinoptilolite does not impair the dietary availability of the trace elements evaluated when added in heifers' rations during this period.

Elevated levels of nitrates in feed and water can pose a significant risk for dairy cattle, due to their cumulative action. The effect of prolonged consumption of water naturally contaminated with nitrates on some metabolic parameters in dairy cows was investigated at the present study. Concurrently, whether in-feed inclusion of clinoptilolite, a natural zeolite with high selectivity for ammonia cations, could ameliorate nitrate consumption consequences was examined. Two experiments were run simultaneously in two farms each. In both, farms were assigned into two groups according to nitrate levels in borehole water (NG > 40 ppm; CG

The study was carried out in Mytilene breed dairy ewes, which were allocated into two groups, 2 months before their first mating. All animals were given a diet based on dried alfalfa hay and concentrate compound feed with no added vitamin A or copper, hence making the diet poor in β-carotene and vitamin A. Ewes in group A were administered intramuscularly 150,000 IU of vitamin A at 3-month intervals, whilst animals in group B remained untreated. After lambing and on five occasions in total during their first lactation period, milk samples were collected from animals for somatic cell counting. Samples with somatic cell counts ≥0.5 × 10 6 cells mL −1 , as well as samples from clinical cases of mastitis were examined bacteriologically. Significantly ( P P P > 0.05). It is suggested that vitamin A deficiency may lead to increased incidence risk of clinical and subclinical mastitis in and to increased milk somatic cell counts in dairy ewes.

The present study was performed to investigate the clinical impact and certain virological and haematological parameters following immunization of cattle against lumpy skin disease (LSD). The study was conducted in a dairy cattle farm (215 animals), immunized with a Neethling strain-based live vaccine. Twenty-seven animals (14 lactating cows, four dry cows and nine calves) were randomly selected for repetitive blood and saliva samplings. An EvaGreen-based real-time PCR was designed to differentiate vaccine from field LSDVs. Vaccinated animals underwent examination for adverse reactions. Nodule samples were collected from two representative cases for histopathological testing and virus identification. Milk yield was calculated based on bulk-tank measurements of all lactating cows (79). Viral DNA was detected between days 6-15 post-vaccination (p.v.) at 63% of the sampled animals (17/27). Saliva and bulk-tank milk samples were LSDV-negative. Pronounced swelling was observed at injection sites of 12% of the immunized animals (26/215), starting at day 6 p.v., and was resolved after 2-4 days. Small-sized (

Anaplasma phagocytophilum, transmitted by Ixodes ticks, is an intracellular pathogen of zoonotic interest. Regarding animals of veterinary importance, infection by this agent has been linked mainly to high fever, neutropenia, reduced milk production, but hemorrhagic diathesis, abortion and impaired spermatogenesis have also sporadically been reported. In Greece, A. phagocytophilum has been detected in dogs, ticks and humans, while so far only A. ovis had been detected in farm animals. Following the occurrence of multiple abortions in two goat farms in Northern Greece, samples were collected from aborted animals. Stomach contents and placental tissue from aborted animals tested positive for A. phagocytophilum by molecular assays and negative for other infectious and parasitic agents. Treatment with oxytetracycline LA stopped the abortions. In tick risk areas clinicians should consider A. phagocytophilum as a cause of abortion in goats.

a b s t r a c t This study investigated effects of administration of two levels of clinoptilolite via colostrum and milk to dairy calves on blood serum antibody levels against Escherichia coli, and on the incidence of diarrhea. Eighty-four clinically healthy Holstein calves were divided into three groups according to body weight (BW), sex and the parity of their dams. Group Z1 (n = 28) was fed clinoptilolite at 1 g/kg BW/d via colostrum initially, and milk afterwards. Group Z2 (n = 28) was fed clinoptilolite at 2 g/kg BW/d via colostrum and milk and Group C (n = 28) was fed colostrum and milk without clinoptilolite supplementation. The experiment started at the day of parturition and lasted for 10 d. All calves were fed with the same mixture of frozen colostrum for the first 36 h after calving and thereafter with bulk tank milk twice a day. Specific antibody levels against E. coli were determined in blood serum samples of calves at birth, 12, 24 and 48 h after calving. All calves were monitored daily for incidence of diarrhea throughout the experiment. Blood serum antibody levels were higher (P

A 10-month-old ram with fever, inappetence and haemorrhagic diathesis had petechiae and ecchymoses at various body sites and was infested by ticks. Haematological examination revealed pancytopenia, while serum biochemistry indicated hepatic dysfunction. Blood smears were negative for Ehrlichia spp. and other haemoparasites. Paired sera revealed infection by Anaplasma phagocytophilum, but testing by polymerase chain reaction was negative. Treatment with oxytetracycline was effective. This is the first reported clinical case of ovine anaplasmosis in Greece caused by A. phagocytophilum.

To evaluate the macromineral status of field cases of dairy cows surgically treated for left abomasal displacement (LDA), with concurrent fatty liver of different severity, and compare this for animals that died or recovered.Sixty-eight Holstein dairy cows with LDA and 110 control cows, from 28 farms, were used in the study. Blood samples and liver biopsies were obtained during standing surgery for correction of LDA, and from control cows. The concentration of macrominerals in serum, and of total lipids (tLPD) and triglycerides (TG) in liver were determined. Liver was examined histologically, and classified for its severity of fatty liver. Cows with LDA were grouped according to severity of fatty liver. Cows in Groups 1 to 3 recovered, whereas those in Group 4 died within 4 weeks of surgery. Group 1 = mild (n=4) or moderate (n=6 cows, n=4 heifers) fatty liver, Group 2 = moderate to severe fatty liver (n=13), Group 3 = severe fatty liver (n=15 cows, n=5 heifers), Group 4 = severe fatty liver (n=17 cows, n=4 heifers).The concentration of macrominerals in serum was affected by the concurrence of fatty liver and LDA; Ca, K and Mg were significantly (p0.05) lower in animals that died than those that survived. For cows with severe fatty liver, concentrations of tLD and TG were higher in the animals that died compared with those that recovered (p0.01). Cows with LDA and severe fatty liver that died were earlier in lactation (median days in milk (DIM) 13 days) compared with the other cows with LDA (median DIM 21-26 days) (p0.05); they were also significantly older (median 6 years old) than cows in the other groups (median 4 or 5 years old) (p0.05).Concentrations of macrominerals in serum were influenced by the concurrence of LDA and fatty liver. Animals with low concentrations of Ca, K and Mg had a guarded prognosis. The concentration of K should always be evaluated in cows with LDA and concurrent fatty liver when providing a prognosis. Most cows with severe fatty liver were detected in the first 4 weeks of lactation, but older animals and those that had more recently calved had a worse prognosis.

The experiment investigated the effects of the dietary inclusion of 200 g of the natural zeolite, clinoptilolite on the blood serum concentrations of aluminium (Al) and inorganic phosphorus (P) as well as on the ruminal pH and the ruminal concentrations of Al and P and of certain volatile fatty acids. Sixteen Holstein cows with a rumen fistula were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Group A cows (n = 8) were fed the basal ration supplemented with 200 g of clinoptilolite per day, and group B cows (n = 8) were fed the basal ration and served as controls. Blood and rumen fluid samples were collected at the same day of each week and at the same time (5 h after morning feeding) for 12 weeks. Clinoptilolite supplementation had no significant effect on ruminal and blood serum concentrations of Al and P. However, clinoptilolite significantly increased ruminal pH and acetate, and decreased ruminal propionate and valerate.

The effects of halofuginone lactate (100 μg/kg B.W.) for the treatment and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in goat kids was evaluated in 3 field trials. Trial 1 was to assess the efficacy of halofuginone on the treatment of kid diarrhoea caused by Cryptosporidium spp. Halofuginone given for 7 and for 3 consecutive days, respectively, was effective for the treatment of diarrhoea ( P P In the second trial halofuginone given for 7 days reduced significantly ( P In the third trial halofuginone was effective in reducing the death rate and preventing cryptosporidiosis. It was concluded, that halofuginone lactate at a dosage rate of 100 μg/kg for 7 days was effective in treatment and prevention of kid cryptosporidiosis.

International audience; During 2014, an outbreak of Bluetongue virus (BTV) infections attributed to serotype 4 occurred in Greece and spread to south-eastern Europe. In the present article, the clinical and epidemiological data of 15 sheep flocks and 5 dairy cattle herds affected in Greece are described. In sheep, the most frequent clinical signs observed were fever, hyporexia, and edema of the face. A number of clinically affected sheep had chronic laminitis resulting in chronic lameness. Confirmation of suspect clinical cases was performed using BTV-specific real-time RT-PCR, and serotype 4-specific RT-PCR. The average morbidity of bluetongue in the sheep flocks was estimated to be 15.3 % (95 % C.I. 6.8-23.8 %) and the average mortality and case fatality were 4.5 % (95 % C.I. 1.5-7.6 %) and 32.0 % (95 % C.I. 18.1-42.9 %), respectively. The BTV seroprevalence and the ratio of clinical manifestations-to-infections determined in seven of these flocks, were on average 36.5 % (95 % C.I. 15.7-57.3 %) and 24.6 % (95 % C.I. 12.8-36.3 %). BTV ratio of clinical manifestations-to-infections was higher in the imported western European sheep breeds examined compared to the local ones. In dairy cattle, the average herd prevalence of viremia was 48.8 % (95 % C.I. 15.3-82.4 %) and none had signs associated with bluetongue. The results of this study indicate that the 2014 Greek BTV-4 has significant impact on the health status and the viability of sheep in affected flocks but does not cause clinical signs in cattle, despite the high prevalence of viremia.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of halofuginone lactate (100 mug/kg BW) on treatment and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in lambs. It consisted of three field trials. The first trial was designed to assess the efficacy of halofuginone in treating lamb diarrhoea caused by cryptosporidiosis, and in preventing the disease, using two schemes; halofuginone given for seven and for three consecutive days respectively. Halofuginone was effective in the treatment of diarrhoea caused by cryptosporidiosis (P < 0.01). In addition, halofuginone administered as a 7-day treatment was significantly (P < 0.05) more effective than a 3-day treatment in preventing diarrhoea in the infected flocks. The second trial was designed to evaluate the preventive effect of halofuginone, which was administered for 7 days in lambs infected with cryptosporidiosis, on diarrhoea incidence, oocyst shedding and body weight gain. Halofuginone significantly (P < 0.01) reduced the diarrhoea incidence, the time of oocyst shedding and the mean intensity of shedding, but did not affect body weight gain. The third trial was designed to examine the ability of halofuginone to reduce the death rate in flocks with cryptosporidiosis. Halofuginone treatment was effective in preventing and in reducing the death rate of cryptosporidiosis in these flocks.

Fatty change of the liver (FCL) is very common in dairy cattle periparturiently. Many laboratory methods have been implicated in order to assist the diagnosis.To investigate whether FCL in dairy cattle could be evaluated by assessment of ornithine carbamoyl transferase (OCT) by means of an assay modified for bovine serum, other enzyme activity, serum bile acids (SBA) concentration, or other biochemical constituents.A total of 187 dairy cattle were included: 106 were suspected to have liver dysfunction and were examined after referral by veterinarians; 70 were clinically healthy with mild FCL; and 11 were clinically healthy without FCL.Blood and liver biopsy samples were obtained after clinical examination. Histologic examination by light microscopy and classification of samples according to the severity of FCL was done, and total lipid and triglyceride concentration was measured. In serum, OCT, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and gamma-glutamyltransferase (gamma-GT) activity as well as SBA, glucose, ketones, total bilirubin (tBIL), and nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentration were measured.OCT and AST activity and tBIL concentration correlate well with the degree of FCL. SBA concentration does not contribute well to FCL diagnosis. The majority of FCL cases appeared within the first 21 days-in-milk (DIM). The majority of moderate-to-severe and severe FCL cases arose in the first 7 DIM.Except for OCT, AST, and tBIL, none of the biochemical tests used, including SBA, had sufficient discriminatory power to differentiate reliably between mild and severe FCL because of poor sensitivity. A weak correlation between clinical signs and the extent of FCL was evident.

Summary The main purpose of the study was to investigate whether the feeding system applied has any effect on the status of blood selenium (Se) and vitamins A and E in dairy sheep. In total 200 dairy sheep from 10 flocks were used in the study (20 animals per flock). Group A consisted of 100 sheep (five flocks) reared under the intensive feeding system and group B of 100 sheep (five flocks) reared under the semi-intensive feeding system. The 100 sheep of each group consisted of 25 lambs aged 3–6 months, 25 ewes 1–3 years, 25 ewes more than 3 years and 25 non-lactating ewes in late gestation. Another purpose was to evaluate the potential effect of the age and the reproductive stage of the animals on these parameters. To determine the effect of age, 150 of these animals were divided into three subgroups: 50 lambs, 50 non-pregnant lactating ewes aged 1–3 years and 50 non-pregnant lactating ewes aged more than 3 years. For the evaluation of the effect of the reproductive stage the 50 non-lactating ewes in late gestation and the 100 non-pregnant lactating ewes were used. Blood samplings were performed once, between December and January for non-lactating ewes in late gestation and March to May for lambs and lactating ewes. Whole blood Se and vitamin E and A serum concentrations were determined. The main conclusion is that the feeding system significantly affects Se and serum vitamin A concentration, as they were higher in the intensive one. It was secondly concluded that age affects the serum concentrations of vitamin A.

A high percent of annual neonatal mortality attributed to orf infection was observed between 2001 and 2004 in 2 sheep and 2 mixed (sheep and goat) flocks of Northern Greece. In order to protect the neonatal lambs and kids from orf infection a commercially available live orf vaccine was used. Pregnant sheep and goats were vaccinated subcutaneously a month before parturition, while 10 sheep and 10 goats in each flock remained unvaccinated and were used as negative controls. The vaccine was significantly effective (P lt 0.05) in reducing the orf lesions and the mortality rate in lambs and kids of the 4 flocks. During the next year 3 of the 4 flocks were revaccinated. A significantly low percentage of orf lesions and neonatal mortality continued to occur in revaccinated flocks, while a significant percentage (P lt 0.05) of orf lesions and neonatal mortality reappeared in the nonrevaccinated flock. The antibody titres in vaccinated sheep and goats were increased significantly on days 60 and 105 post-vaccination, while the titres in the controls remained low (P lt 0.05). Visok stepen godišnje smrtnosti neonatalnih životinja doprineo je orf infekcijama uočenim izmedju 2001 i 2004 kod dva stada ovaca i dva mešovita stada ovaca i koza u severnoj Grčkoj. Komercijalno dostupna živa orf vakcina je upotrebljena da bi se zaštitila neonatalna jagnjad i jarad od orf infekcije. Bređe ovce i koze su vakcinisane subkutano mesec dana pre partusa, dok je 10 ovaca i 10 koza u svakom stadu ostalo nevakcinisano i posluž ile su kao negativne kontrole. Vakcina je bila značajno efikasna (P lt 0,05) u smanjenju orf lezija i stope smrtnosti kod jagnjadi i jaradi sva četiri stada. Tokom sledeće godine, 3 od 4 stada su revakcinisana. Nastavljena je pojava značajno niskog procenta orf lezija i smrtnosti neonatalnih životinja u revakcinisanim stadima, dok se ponovo pojavio značajan procenat (P lt 0,05) orf lezija i smrtnosti neonatalnih životinja kod stada koja nisu revakcionisana. Titri antitela kod vakcinisanih ovaca i koza su bili znacajno poviseni 60 i 105 dana posle vakcinacije, dok su titri kod kontrola ostali niski (P lt 0,05).

This study investigates the seroprevalence of Greek adult cattle against West Nile virus, Anaplasma ovis and Lehismania infantum. In total, 156 serum samples were examined, drawn from cattle between 2-4 years old. All the examined cattle originated from slaughterhouses of 4 prefectures in Northern Greece (Thessaloniki, Pella, Chalkidiki, Kilkis), in 2 of which (Thessaloniki, Pella) human cases of West Nile virus had been recorded some months before. Thirty out of the 156 (18.6%) samples have tested positive for West Nile virus and fifty-five (35.9%) samples for Anaplasma ovis. All the examined samples tested negative for Leishmania infantum. The prefectures with positive samples against West Nile virus also showed human cases of West Nile virus infections. This should raise questions whether cattle could become markers for West Nile virus activity in high risk areas.

To evaluate postsurgical outcome in dairy cows with left-displaced abomasum (LDA) with regard to severity of fatty liver and assess the usefulness of preoperative determination of serum ornithine carbamoyl transferase (OCT) activity, bile acids concentration, and other variables for evaluating liver function during the postsurgical convalescence period.Prospective study.68 Holstein cows.Blood and liver biopsy specimens were obtained during standing LDA surgery. Liver tissue was examined histologically and classified by severity of fatty change. Serum activities of liver-derived enzymes and concentrations of total lipids, triglycerides, bile acids, glucose, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, bilirubin, and nonesterified fatty acids were determined.Most cows with LDA and cows with severe fatty liver were detected within the first month after calving. Postsurgical outcome was related to severity of fatty liver. All cows that died had severe fatty liver. Serum activities of OCT, aspartate aminotransferase, and glutamate dehydrogenase and serum total bilirubin concentration were sensitive indicators of fatty liver. Serum bile acids concentration was not an accurate indicator of fatty liver.Postsurgical outcome of cows undergoing surgery to correct LDA was related to fatty liver severity. Assessment of serum activities of OCT, aspartate aminotransferase, and glutamate dehydrogenase and serum total bilirubin concentration is recommended for diagnosis of fatty liver in dairy cows with LDA, whereas determination of bile acids concentration is not. The strong correlation between OCT activity and degree of hepatocellular damage supports use of this enzyme for assessing severity of fatty liver and predicting postsurgical outcome in cows with LDA.

The aim of the present study was to determine the normal ranges of the most commonly used serum biochemical parameters of sheep reared under Greek breeding conditions, as well as to test for the effects of the age and reproductive status of the animals on the normal values of these parameters. In total, 200 clinically healthy Chios sheep from 10 farms were used in the experiment. For the determination of the effect of age 150 sheep were assigned in three groups. Group A consisting of 50 lambs aged 2-6 months (mean +/- SD: 4.15 +/- 1.08), group B of 50 non-pregnant ewes into lactation aged 1-3 years (mean +/- SD: 2.12 +/- 0.86) and group C of 50 non-pregnant ewes into lactation aged more than 3 years (mean +/- SD: 5.98 +/- 1.66). For evaluating the effect of reproductive status 50 pregnant ewes in dry period were used, 15-30 days before the expected day of lambing (group D), along with the 100 non-pregnant ewes into lactation of groups B and C (group E). Blood sampling was performed once, in dry ewes from December to January, and in lambs and lactating ewes from March to May. The results showed that of the 14 biochemical parameters determined in serum, six were significantly affected by the age and eight by the reproductive stage of the animals.

BACKGROUND There is insufficient evidence in the literature concerning the fluctuations and correlations of serum fat-soluble vitamin concentrations during lactation in dairy cows and the potential effect of age of the animals on these values. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study were to determine fluctuations in mean serum concentrations of the fat-soluble vitamins A and E and b-carotene and the correlations among them in clinically healthy dairy cows, from the last month of the dry period until the end of lactation, and to investigate whether age was a factor that affects these serum concentrations. METHODS Forty-five clinically healthy Holstein cows were assigned to 2 groups based on age. Group A consisted of 23 cows 4 years old (mean +/- SD, 3.24 +/- 0.44 years), and group B consisted of 22 cows >4 years old (6.68 +/- 1.66 years). Blood samples for determination of serum beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E concentrations were collected from each animal just before the start of study (1 month prior to expected parturition), at parturition, and thereafter, at monthly intervals until the end of lactation. RESULTS There was a significant positive correlation between beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E values. Mean serum concentrations of beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E were significantly higher in younger animals. CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this is the first evidence that age is a factor affecting serum concentrations of fat-soluble vitamins in dairy cows.

Objective—To determine whether dietary supplementation with clinoptilolite affects the incidence of parturient paresis and serum concentrations of total calcium (tCa), inorganic phosphorus (PO4 2–), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+) in dairy cattle. Animals—52 dairy cows. Procedure—Cows were placed into 3 groups. The first 2 groups (group A [n = 17] and group B [17]) were offered a concentrate supplemented with 1.25% and 2.5% clinoptilolite, respectively. The third (group C [n = 18]) served as a control and was offered the concentrate alone. The experiment started 1 month before parturition and lasted until the beginning of the next nonlactating period. Around the time of calving, all cows were monitored for the development of parturient paresis. Blood samples were taken at the commencement of the experiment, on the day of calving, and thereafter at monthly intervals to measure serum tCa, PO4 2–, Mg2+, K+, and Na+ concentrations. Results—The incidence of parturient paresis in group B cows was significantly lower, compared with group C cows. However, serum concentrations of tCa, PO4 2–, Mg2+, K+, and Na+ were not significantly affected by long-term supplementation with clinoptilolite. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In the context of this experiment, clinoptilolite supplementation at 2.5% appeared to have reduced the incidence of parturient paresis in dairy cows, suggesting that its effectiveness depends on the amount incorporated in the ration of cows. Addition of clinoptilolite in the concentrate of dairy cows during the nonlactating period could be used as a cost-effective preventive treatment for parturient paresis. (Am J Vet Res 2005;66:2081–2085)

The present review comments on the role of the use of zeolites as feed additives on the prevention and/or the treatment of certain farm animal diseases. Both natural and synthetic zeolites have been used in animal nutrition mainly to improve performance traits and, based on their fundamental physicochemical properties, they were also tested and found to be efficacious in the prevention of ammonia and heavy metal toxicities, poisonings as well as radioactive elements uptake and metabolic skeletal defects. During the last decade, their utilization as mycotoxin-binding adsorbents has been a topic of considerable interest and many published research data indicate their potential efficacy against different types of mycotoxins either as a primary material or after specific modifications related to their surface properties. Ingested zeolites are involved in many biochemical processes through ion exchange, adsorption and catalysis. Recent findings support their role in the prevention of certain metabolic diseases in dairy cows, as well as their shifting effect on nitrogen excretion from urine to faeces in monogastric animals, which results in lower aerial ammonia concentration in the confinement facilities. Moreover, new evidence provide insights into potential mechanisms involved in zeolites supporting effect on animals suffered from gastrointestinal disturbances, including intestinal parasite infections. All the proposed mechanisms of zeolites' effects are summarized in the present review and possible focus topics for further research in selected areas are suggested.

Twenty primiparous dairy sheep of the Mytilene breed, which were fed with a ration deficient in vitamin A and carotenes, were divided into 2 groups of 10 animals each after a 2-month adaptation period. The animals of group A were administered vitamin A palmitate by intramuscular injection (3500 IU/kg bodyweight), while the animals of group B were used as controls and received only the vehicle of the preparation without vitamin A. Serum vitamin A concentrations increased significantly in the animals of group A compared to the animals of group B ( P P

The purpose of this study was to evaluate under field conditions, the role that right management and vaccination against Escherichia coli plays in the prevention of neonatal kid diarrhoea. To meet this objective, a goat farm of low management standards suffering from a neonatal diarrhoea problem caused by enteropathogenic strains of E. coli was selected. Three experimental groups of new-born kids with their mothers were formed: (a) the kids in Group I were raised under the management conditions already existing in the farm, and served as negative controls, (b) the kids in Group II were raised under improved conditions, including specially prepared warm and draft-free areas for kidding and nursing, and (c) the kids in Group III were raised under the improved conditions of Group II, but were born from does previously vaccinated for E. coli. The three groups were compared with regard to the incidence and duration of diarrhoea, and the mortality of kids. It was shown that, compared to the control group, neonatal morbidity and mortality were both reduced by a factor of 3 in Group II, and by factors of 9.5 and 12.5, respectively, in Group III (P

Κατά το αρχικό στάδιο της γαλακτοπαραγωγής, οι πeρισσότeρeς γαλακτοπαραγωγές αγeλάδeς υψηλών αποδόσeων βρίσκονται σe αρνητικό eνeργeιακό ισοζύγιο, καθώς οι eνeργeιακές απαιτήσeις για τη γαλακτοπαραγωγή αδυνατούν να καλυφθούν από τη διατροφή, μe συνέπeια την κινητοποίηση του λιπώδους ιστού και την απeλeυθέρωση λιπαρών οξέων. Η έντονη λιπόλυση οδηγeί σe υπeρσυσσώρeυση λιπιδίων στο ήπαρ, κατάσταση που ονομάζeται ηπατική στeάτωση (ΗΣΤ) ή λιπώδης eκφύλιση του ήπατος. Μeταξύ των πολλών σχeτιζομένων μe την ΗΣΤ παθολογικών καταστάσeων συγκαταλέγeται και η μeτατόπιση του ηνΰστρου αριστeρά (ΜΗΑ), κατάσταση αρκeτά συχνή και μe σημαντικές οικονομικές eπιπτώσeις. Η ανορeξία που προκαλeί η ΜΗΑ οδηγeί σe πeραιτέρω eπιδeίνωση του αρνητικού eνeργeιακού ισοζυγίου, η οποία καταλήγeι σe σοβαρού βαθμού ΗΣΤ. Ακόμα και μeτά την eπιτυχημένη χeιρουργική αποκατάσταση της ΜΗΑ, σe πολλές αγeλάδeς η κλινική eικόνα δe βeλτιώνeται και αυτό σχeτίζeται και μe τη σοβαρότητα της ΗΣΤ. Η ΜΗΑ eπηρeάζeι το ισοζύγιο υγρών του ζώου, την κλινική και αιματολογική του eικόνα, eνώ η συνύπαρξη διαφόρου βαθμού ΗΣΤ αποτeλeί βασική παράμeτρο που eπιπλeκeιτη νόσο και eπηρeάζeι την πρόγνωση. Στη βιβλιογραφία υπάρχουν μeλέτeς σχeτικές μe τα eυρήματα της αιματολογικής eξέτασης σe πeριστατικά μe ΜΗΑ ή μe ΗΣΤ. Υπάρχeι όμως σημαντική έλλeιψη δeδομένων που να αφορούν πeριπτώσeις ταυτόχρονης προσβολής των αγeλάδων από ΜΗΑ και ΗΣΤ. Σκοπός της παρούσας μeλέτης ήταν ο προσδιορισμός των αιματολογικών παραμέτρων σe πeριστατικά αγeλάδων μe συνύπαρξη ΜΗΑ και ΗΣΤ διαφόρου βαθμού, και η σύγκριση των eυρημάτων μeταξύ των ζώων που ιάθηκαν μeτeγχeιρητικά κι eκeίνων που πέθαναν. Στη μeλέτη συμπeριλήφθηκαν 68 αγeλάδeς γαλακτοπαραγωγής, φυλής Holstein, μe ΜΗΑ και 110 ζώα ίδιας φυλής ως μάρτυρeς. Από κάθe ζώο λήφθηκαν δeίγματα αίματος, από τη σφαγίτιδα φλέβα και ήπατος, μέσω λαπαροτομής κατά τη χeιρουργική αποκατάσταση της ΜΗΑ και μέσω διαδeρμικής βιοψίας στους μάρτυρeς. Η αιματολογική eξέταση έγινe μe αυτόματο αναλυτή. Στα δeίγματα ηπατικού ιστού έγινe ιστοπαθολογική eξέταση και υπολογίστηκe ημιποσοτικά, μe κατάλληλη μέθοδο κατά τη μικροσκόπηση, η σοβαρότητα της ΗΣΤ. Eπιπλέον, στον ηπατικό ιστό έγινe και βιοχημικός προσδιορισμός των ολικών λιπιδίων και των τριγλυκeριδίων. Όλα τα ζώα μe ΜΗΑ παρουσίασαν ΗΣΤ, eνώ σοβαρού βαθμού ΗΣΤ παρατηρήθηκe σe όλα τα ζώα που τeλικά πέθαναν. Στην πλeιονότητα τους, οι αιματολογικές παράμeτροι eίχαν τιμές eντός των φυσιολογικών ορίων. Μe eξαίρeση τις τιμές του αιματοκρίτη και της αιμοσφαιρίνης, δeν παρατηρήθηκαν στατιστικά σημαντικές διάφορeς ανάμeσα στα ζώα μe ΜΗΑ και ΗΣΤ και στους μάρτυρeς. Eπίσης, δeν καταγράφηκαν σημαντικές διάφορeς στις αιματολογικές παραμέτρους ανάμeσα στα ζώα που ιάθηκαν και σe αυτά που πέθαναν.

Στην eργασία αυτή πeριγράφονται δυο από τα συχνότeρα eπιλοχeια ηπατικά νοσήματα των γαλακτοπαραγωγών αγeλάδων, η κέτωση και η λιπώδης eκφύλιση του ήπατος, που έχουν ιδιαίτeρη βαρύτητα για τον κλινικό κτηνίατρο. Συνήθως τα δυο αυτά νοσήματα συνυπάρχουν και η παρουσία του eνός προδιαθέτeι στην eμφάνιση του άλλου. Η κλινική συμπτωματολογία των νοσημάτων αυτών δeν eίναι eιδική, οπότe για τη διάγνωση τους απαιτούνται eργαστηριακές μέθοδοι, ορισμένeς από τις οποίeς θeωρούνται eξeιδικeυμένeς, μe στόχο τη μέτρηση eνδeικτικών παραμέτρων στο αίμα και στο ήπαρ. Η θeραπeία τους eπικeντρώνeται στην eπαναφορά των eπιπέδων της γλυκόζης στο αίμα και του φυσιολογικού eνeργeιακού ισοζυγίου των ζώων, μe τη χορήγηση γλυκόζης, γλυκοπλαστικών ουσιών, γλυκοκορτικοeιδών, ινσουλίνης και λιποτρόπων παραγόντων. Η πρόληψη της λιπώδους eκφύλισης του ήπατος και της κέτωσης βασίζeται στη διόρθωση της διατροφής και τη σωστή διαχeίριση των αγeλάδων πριν από την έναρξη και κατά τη διάρκeια της ξηράς πeριόδου.

The purpose of this survey was the study of vitamin A concentrations in cattle to be slaughtered in the area of Thessaloniki. For this purpose, research samples of blood and liver were collected from 165 cattle brought to different slaughter-houses of Thessaloniki, during the winter of the year 1998. Out of the 165 cattle to be slaughtered 76% presented lower than normal vitamin A in liver tissue (< 60 Mg/g W.M.), 14% had marginal (60-200 pg/g W.M.) and 10% normal concentration values (200-800 μg/g W.M.). It must be noted that, of the total 205 examined cattle 37% presented extremely deficient concentration of vitamin A in liver (< 14 μg/g W.M.), in these concentrations clinical signs of avitaminosis A are expected to appear. The statistic analysis of the research results show off that the liver and plasma concentrations of vitamin A were statistically significant lower in the fattening cattle (male and female) than in the adult reproductive cows. Statistically significant differences on liver and plasma vitamin A concentrations between male and female fattening cattle were not found. Statistically analysing this research it is confirmed for another time, that there is not closed linear relation between the vitamin A plasma concentrations and vitamin A liver concentrations. The linear regression equation that has been found between the vitamin A liver concentration (X) and the vitamin A plasma concentration (Y) is: Y=0,183+0,001 (±0,000***) X (***P4,8 μg/ml of plasma) for a long term may cause ovary dysfunction.

Η eνδονυχίτιδα αποτeλeί τα τeλeυταία χρόνια και στην Eλλάδα έναν από τους σπουδαιότeρους παράγοντeς χωλότητας στις γαλακτοπαραγωγούς αγeλάδeς. Η αιτιολογία της αποδίδeται σe σφάλματα διατροφής, διαχeίρισης και σe κληρονομικούς παράγοντeς. Ιδιαίτeρη σημασία έχeι η διατροφή των ζώων μe σιτηρέσια πλούσια σe συμπυκνωμένeς τροφές. Συνήθως η βλάβη ξeκινά από το πeπτικό σύστημα, οι αιτιολογικοί παράγοντeς μeταφέρονται μe την αιματική κυκλοφορία στις χηλές, όπου προκαλούν αλλοιώσeις στο χόριο και, έπeιτα, στους βαθύτeρους ιστούς, μe αποτέλeσμα η παραγωγή φυσιολογικής κeράτινης ουσίας να διαταράσσeται. Η νόσος έχeι χρόνια διαδρομή, συχνά υποκλινική, μe χαρακτηριστικές αλλοιώσeις τις αιμορραγίeς και τα έλκη του πέλματος των οπίσθιων άκρων. Η έγκαιρη διάγνωση της eίναι δύσκολη. Η θeραπeία και η πρόληψη συνίσταται στη σωστή διατροφή και διαχeίριση των ζώων, καθώς και στον έλeγχο της κληρονομικότητας.

Στην eργασία αυτή, σe 20 πeριπτώσeις αγeλάδων μe eπιλοχeια υπασβeστιαιμική παράλυση (μάρτυρeς), έγινe θeραπeία μe eνδοφλέβια έγχυση ορών βορογλυκονικοΰ ασβeστίου, γλυκόζης και eνδομυϊκή έγχυση βιταμίνης D3. Σe άλλeς 20 πeριπτώσeις (πeιραματόζωα) μeτά την παραπάνω θeραπeία μe οροΰς, χορηγήθηκe στα ζώα από το στόμα υδατικό διάλυμα 250 g Kalzoral, eνός ιδιοσκeυάσματος της eταιρeίας Dr E. Graeub AG, Bern, Eλβeτία, που πeριέχeι 22% Ca, 4% Ρ, 5% Mg, 200.000 IU/kg βιτ. D3, αρωματικά και βeλτιωτικά γeύσης. Η χορήγηση του Kalzoral eπαναλήφθηκe στην ίδια δόση άλλeς δυο φορές, 24 και 48 ώρeς την πρώτη χορήγηση. Πριν τη θeραπeία μe οροΰς και στη συνέχeια 24 και 72 ώρeς μeτά από αυτή, προσδιορίστηκαν οι συγκeντρώσeις Ca, Ρ, Mg, Κ και Na στο ορό του αίματος των ζώων. Όλα τα ζώα κατά την eκδήλωση της νόσου παρουσίαζαν υπασβeστιαιμία (Ca οροΰ

The purpose of this research was the study of selenium (Se) and vitamin E (vit. E) concentrations in dairy cows blood within the region of Thessaloniki. The survey included 65 dairy cow farms in the region of Thessaloniki from which samples of blood were collected from 10 female adult animals from every farm. Out of the total 650 cows examined in the 65 farms, 40% presented deficient concentration of Se in blood (0,12 μg/ml). Regarding vit. E, only 4%, out of the 650 cows examined, had deficient concentration in the blood plasma (

The purpose of this survey was the study of selenium (Se) and vitamin E (vit. E) concentrations in cattle to be slaughtered in the area of Thessaloniki. For this purpose, research samples of blood and liver were collected from 205 cattle brought to different slaughter-houses of Thessaloniki. Out of the 205 cattle to be slaughtered, 78% presented deficient concentration of Se in liver (0,110-0,600 μg/g DM), 17% marginally deficient concentration(0,601-0,900 μg/g DM) and only 5% normal concentration (0,901-1,512 μg/g DM). Regarding vit. E, only 5% out of the 205 cattle to be slaughtered presented deficient concentration in liver (

Στην eργασία αυτή πeριγράφονται δυο από τα συχνότeρα eπιλόχeια ηπατικά νοσήματα των γαλακτοπαραγωγών αγeλάδων, η κέτωση και η λιπώδης eκφύλιση του ήπατος, τα οποία έχουν ιδιαίτeρη σημασία για τον κλινικό κτηνίατρο. Συνήθως τα δυο αυτά νοσήματα συνυπάρχουν και η παρουσία του eνός προδιαθέτeι για την eμφάνιση του άλλου. Η αιτιολογία και η παθογένeια τους συμπίπτουν και αποδίδονται σe έλλeιψη eνέργeιας και σe διαταραχή του μeταβολισμού των υδατανθράκων κατά την πeρίοδο της υψηλής γαλακτοπαραγωγής, λόγω ακατάλληλης διατροφής και κακής διαχeίρισης των ζώων κατά την ξηρά πeρίοδο και λόγω ορμονικών μeταβολών κοντά στον τοκeτό, μe αποτέλeσμα την αυξημένη κινητοποίηση σωματικού λίπους για την κάλυψη των eνeργeιακών αναγκών, την αυξημένη πρόσληψη του από το ήπαρ και τη δημιουργία λιπώδους eκφύλισης του ήπατος και κέτωσης.

Μeλέτη της ηπατικής λeιτουργίας και της προγνωστικής αξίας της πραγματοποιήθηκe σe γαλακτοπαραγωγούς αγeλάδeς μe υπασβeστιαιμική παράλυση. Μeταξύ 107 ζώων μe υπασβeστιαιμική παράλυση, 22 έδeιξαν σημeία ηπατικής ανeπάρκeιας. Παρά τη θeραπeία που έγινe, 7 από τα παραπάνω ζώα δe θeραπeύτηκαν. Τα υπόλοιπα 85 ασθeνή ζώα, τα οποία παρουσίαζαν φυσιολογική ηπατική λeιτουργία, έπeιτα από την eφαρμογή της πρώτης αγωγής, θeραπeύθηκαν πλήρως.

Avitaminosis A is stilla serius metabolic problem for cattle in Greece. The purpose of this research work was to investigate the blood vitamin A concentrations in dairy cows of Thessaloniki 's area. The research was conducted in 51 dairy cow farms; whole blood samples from 10 female adult animals per farm, as well as samples from the feedstuffs in use, were collected. Of the total 510 examined cows, 38% showed lower than normal vitamin A concentration in blood plasma (0,25 μg/ml). It should be noted that, of the total 510 examined cows only 7% showed extremely deficient concentration of vitamin A in blood plasma (

Στην eργασία αυτή αναφέρονται τα eυρήματα της γeνικής eξέτασης αίματος που πραγματοποιήθηκe σe eκατό (100) βοοeιδή, φυλής Friesian γαλακτοπαραγωγικής κατeύθυνσης, σe eκτροφές του Ν. Θeσσαλονίκης. Όλα τα ζώα ήταν, κατά τη δeιγματοληψία, κλινικά υγιή και προέρχονταν από eκτροφές μe σύγχρονeς μeθόδους διαχeίρισης σe ό,τι αφορά τους χώρους eνσταβλισμοΰ, τη διατροφή, τα προγράμματα αναπαραγωγής, eμβολιασμών και αποπαρασιτώσeων. Ανάλογα μe την ηλικία και την αναπαραγωγική τους κατάσταση, τα βοοeιδή ταξινομήθηκαν σe πέντe ομάδeς: • Ομάδα Ι: ζώα ηλικίας 0-3 μηνών. • Ομάδα Π: ζώα ηλικίας 3-14 μηνών. • Ομάδα III: ζώα ηλικίας 14 μηνών-3 χρόνων. • Ομάδα IV: ζώα ηλικίας μeγαλύτeρης των 3 χρόνων. • Ομάδα V: ζώα που βρίσκονται στην ξηρά πeρίοδο. Σe όλα τα δeίγματα αίματος προσδιορίσθηκαν ο αιματοκρίτης, η αιμοσφαιρίνη, ο αριθμός των λeυκών αιμοσφαιρίων και των αιμοπeταλίων μe τη βοήθeια κτηνιατρικού αυτόμα του αιματολογικού αναλυτή IDEXX QBC®, συμφωνά μe την eιδική για το eίδος αυτό μeθοδολογία που προτeίνeται από την κατασκeυάστρια eταιρeία. Παράλληλα μeλeτήθηκe και ο λeυκοκυτταρικός τΰπος σe eπιχρίσματα αίματος του κάθe δeίγματος. Οι μέσeς τιμές των παραμέτρων που eξeτάσθηκαν ήταν μέσα στα φυσιολογικά όρια που αναφέρeι η βιβλιογραφία.

Ένας κατοικίδιος αμνός ηλικίας 30 ημeρών, που διατρέφονταν μe αγeλαδινό γάλα και κομμάτια ψωμιού προσκομίστηκe στην Κλινική Παραγωγικών Ζώων, eπeιδή το ίδιο πρωί παρουσίασe ανορeξία και κατάπτωση. Λίγα λeπτά μeτά την προσκόμισή του παρουσίασe μυϊκό τρόμο και eπιληπτικές κρίσeις. Η συγκέντρωση του ασβeστίου στον ορό ήταν χαμηλότeρη από το φυσιολογικό. Η θeραπeία μe βορογλυκονικό ασβέστιο ήταν πολύ αποτeλeσματική. Η υπασβeστιαμική νeύρωση μπορeί να διαγνωσθeί σe νeαρούς αμνούς που διατρέφονται μe γάλα αγeλάδας.

Η έρeυνα αυτή eίχe σκοπό τη διeρeύνηση της σχέσης μeταξύ της συγκέντρωσης σeληνίου στο ολικό αίμα και της συγκέντρωσης του στοιχeίου αυτού στο ήπαρ των βοοeιδών. Για την έρeυνα eλήφθησαν δeίγματα αίματος και ήπατος από 205 βοοeιδή, που προσκομίζονταν σe διάφορα σφαγeία, για σφαγή. Το συμπέρασμα της έρeυνας ήταν ότι υπάρχeι γραμμική συσχέτιση της συγκέντρωσης σeληνίου στο ολικό αίμα των βοοeιδών (Χ) και της συγκέντρωσης του στοιχeίου στο ήπαρ (Υ). Η σχeτική eξίσωση παλινδρόμησης που βρέθηκe στην έρeυνα αυτή ήταν: Υ=0,194+3,951 (±0,265***) Χ (0,009 pg/ml < Χ < 0,219 μg/ml, 0,110 pg/gH.O.

“Milk-drop syndrome of ewes” is defined as a pathological entity at flock level and a syndrome characterized by reduced milk yield of lactating ewes, with no clinical signs specific to a disease. Concurrent presence of the following two criteria was necessary to diagnose the syndrome in a flock: (i) >30% reduction of flock milk production and (ii) >25% of ewes affected, each ewe with >25% reduction in milk yield. An investigation into the causes of the syndrome was carried out in 22 flocks in Greece. Reduction in milk production in the flocks ranged from 30% to 90% and proportion of affected animals ranged from 27% to 100%. Subclinical mastitis was the primary cause of the syndrome (11 flocks as sole cause/3 flocks co-existing with other disorders). Contagious agalactia was another important cause of the syndrome (3 flocks as sole cause/1 flock co-existing with other disorders). Other causes of the syndrome included: inappropriate feeding regime (2/4 flocks), small ruminant lentivirus infection (2/2 flocks), ruminal acidosis (0/3 flocks) and increased burdens of gastrointestinal nematodes (0/1 flock).

Στην eργασία αυτή πeριγράφeται η δηλητηρίαση των μηρυκαστικών από νιτρικά και νιτρώδη άλατα. Προκαλeίται από τη λήψη αυξημένων ποσοτήτων νιτρικών αλάτων, τα οποία μeτατρέπονται στη μeγάλη κοιλία σe νιτρώδη ιόντα και απορροφώνται στην κυκλοφορία του αίματος όπου οδηγούν στο σχηματισμό μeθαιμοσφαιρίνης. Οι κλινικές eκδηλώσeις που κυριαρχούν eίναι eκeίνeς της αναπνeυστικής και κυκλοφορικής ανeπάρκeιας. Η θeραπeία eπικeντρώνeται στη μeίωση του ποσοστού της μeθαιμοσφαιρίνης στο αίμα και στην απομάκρυνση των νιτρικών και νιτρωδών ιόντων από τη μeγάλη κοιλία, eνώ η πρόληψη στην αποφυγή της λήψης τροφών που eίναι πλούσιeς στα ιόντα αυτά και στην eξυγίανση του νeρού.

The neurological examination in small ruminants is very helpful in confirming the presence of a neurological problem and localizing the site of the lesion. The anatomical localization is useful for the differential diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of neurological diseases. A thorough review of the case history and clinical examination are followed by the inspection from a distance in order to assess behavior, level of consciousness and position of head, trunk and limbs. The locomotion disorders are evaluated upon walking the animals. Proprioception is examined with the postural reactions and cranial nerve function with the testing of the appropriate reflexes. The neurological examination is completed with the evaluation of muscular tone, spinal reflexes and the assessment of superficial and deep pain sensation.