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The introduction of a free trade area between the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and China (ACFTA) in 2012 brought China to a leading economic position in Southeast Asia (this was manifested in a significant, almost 2.2-fold, increase in the volume of trade) and turned it into a driving force of ASEAN's economic prosperity. However, this increased economic interdependence creates challenges for both China and ASEAN: on the one hand, China seeks to make the transition from a high-income country to sustainable economic development in the ASEAN region, and on the other hand, ASEAN has concerns about excessive economic dependence on China. This situation requires a balance to be struck to avoid repeating the historical patterns seen in Japan in the 1960s and 1980s. This article examines the investment, trade and geopolitical relations between China and ASEAN in a historical retrospective of 2010-2022, assesses their economic dependence and the mechanisms of political-economic relations, identifies the factors that caused China's rapid economic breakthrough, and outlines directions for overcoming the most modern challenges that have place in the context of this relationship through formulation of suggested frameworks. The article considers 2 research questions, for the solution of which the G/T (Grounded Theory) approach was used and a qualitative analysis of the 12 most relevant sources was carried out (limitation of their number - according to the concept of theoretical saturation), selected primarily through online databases, websites, international organizations' data, analytical reviews, and scientific papers. RQ1: Identify the root causes of the problems faced by ASEAN middle-income countries in their engagement with China. The article identifies the following 3 main reasons through the empirical review analysis: 1) dependence of middle-income ASEAN countries on financial assistance, especially from China; 2) a noticeable decrease in unity in the ASEAN region; 3) China's lack of recommendations on the advisory policy of economic development in the ASEAN countries. RQ2: development of recommendations for middle-income ASEAN countries to increase their ability to pave independent paths to sustainable economic development and reduce their economic dependence on China, taking into account the review of the balance of power in political relations with the United States and China. Using the qualitative analysis tool ATLAS.ti (version 24) for the G/T approach, it was concluded that to overcome the syndromes of lower-middle-income trap (LMIT) and higher-middle-income trap (HMIT), ASEAN economies should implement the following spontaneous strategies: infrastructure development, improvement of basic education and promotion of science and technology. In addition, it is important to raise awareness of political tensions between China and the US, apply the techniques of thoughtful diplomacy, fine-tuned policy formulation, and shared vision to establish a diplomatic balance between China, the US, and Japan in the context of geopolitical risk management.

The concept of the middle-income trap (MIT) asserts that economies with middle-income levels often struggle to progress to higher income levels, which is particularly evident in Southeast Asia. Escaping the MIT has been a significant concern, with various factors like governance, infrastructure, and labor markets identified as contributors. Education is a crucial element for developing human capital and driving economic growth. Despite efforts to enhance education, the Philippines has a historical challenge of being stuck in the lower-middle-income trap (LMIT). Limited research on effective education reform strategies to overcome the LMIT in the Philippines is available in government plans and existing studies. The research utilized a mixed method involving both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In the initial qualitative phase, the analysis drew from the Murdoch School's critical political economy and strategic management framework. It revealed that insufficient funding for education, unequal allocation of resources between urban and rural areas, and unfavorable home learning environments are significant factors hindering progress. To address these issues and escape the LMIT, a development strategy was proposed, combining formulation and execution into a unified concept. By tackling problems like misaligned investment priorities, improper resource distribution, lack of mobile infrastructure, and unsupportive learning environments, collaboration among private sectors and universities as cluster networks could drive educational reforms. This, in turn, would lead to societal transformation and economic growth by aligning with societal needs and market demands. Focusing on relevant skills in the digital age is a suitable approach, where skill-oriented education could serve as a cornerstone of the reform efforts.

The middle-income trap (MIT) states that middle-income economies have found it challenging to upgrade to reach the high-income stage over an extended period. Overcoming MIT has long been discussed as an essential social issue related to fewer job opportunities and unstable income, notably in Southeast Asia. Previous studies demonstrated several factors contributing to MIT, including governance, infrastructure, and the labor market. Official Development Assistance (ODA) has been employed to help developing countries accelerate further development as development cooperation. Despite the massive financial aid, the Philippines has the longest-running history of operating under LMIT. Much less research on the unclouded evidence on the relationship between the ODA and MIT in the developing world and on the strategic study relevant to ODA for overcoming the lower-middle-income trap (LMIT) in the Philippines was identified from the updated government development plans were identified in the existing research. Using secondary data compiled between 2002 and 2021, primarily from the World Development Indicators, UNCTAD, UNDP, and OECD database, and POLS modeling, the strength of the Japan ODA predicting the percentage change in R2 variance in the LMIT was evaluated in nine Southeast Asian economies. Using natural data, ODA was found to be a significant predictor (F [1, 130] = 26.553 p = .000) and is thus a substantial factor in escaping LMIT. Using the analytical approach of Murdoch School of critical political-economy, state actors’ wasteful procrastination and excessive dependency on the donor were found to be significant culprits. Also, a development strategy for overcoming LMIT through the ODA was suggested by conceptually integrating three processes of problem-setting, strategy, and tactics, into one concept. Development cooperation can be re-defined as “glocal” activities by state actors collaborating with non-state actors to maximize national capabilities. Building a further trustful relationship with ASEAN and Japan is desirable for the Philippines.

In this review, the phytogeography and history of Japanese beech (Fagus crenata Blume and F. japonica Maxim.) forests are re‐examined in light of recent phytogeographical and palaeobotanical research advances. I explain the floristics and the climatic and geological contrasts between Japanese beech forests on the Sea of Japan side and the Pacific side of the Japanese archipelago. We also review recent studies on the origin of dwarf evergreen shrub species occurring along the Sea of Japan. The old scenario that these dwarf evergreen shrub species diverged directly from counterpart species occurring on the Pacific coast of Japan is no longer supported. We propose more intricate speciation processes, including phylogenetic relations to extant Chinese species and inter‐species hybridization. We also review the results of recent palaeobotanical studies of forests on the Japanese islands in the Quaternary. The long persistence of beech forests through glacial/interglacial cycles of the Quaternary—with repeated spread and contraction of the geographical range—is confirmed. In addition, we briefly explain the phytosociological classification system of the Japanese beech forest and the geographical ranges of each vegetation type. We review studies of the geographic distribution of F. crenata and F. japonica at the population level, highlighting the need for further ecological and genetic studies of population dynamics near the range limits to understand historic migration processes better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]