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The red sheep tick, Haemaphysalis punctata (Ixodida: Ixodidae), has been reported as present in the U.K. for more than a century; however, very little has been written about its distribution. In recent years, numbers of detections of this tick species reported to the Public Health England (PHE) Tick Surveillance Scheme have increased. This rise in the number of records may be attributable to increased tick surveillance activities or to the increased distribution of this species of tick in parts of England. This paper reviews published reports of H. punctata and all data held by the Biological Records Centre and PHE, and summarizes a number of field studies conducted by PHE and the Animal and Plant Health Agency over the past 8 years. It would appear from the evidence presented here that H. punctata may be expanding its range across the eastern part of the South Downs National Park, where there have also been reports of this tick species biting humans. It is possible that the movement of sheep between grassland sites is facilitating this spread. Further studies that better elucidate the ecology of this tick and its possible role as a vector of human and veterinary diseases are now warranted. In recent years, numbers of detections of the red sheep tick, Haemaphysalis punctata, reported to the Public Health England (PHE) passive Tick Surveillance Scheme (TSS) have increased.The U.K. distribution of H. punctata is summarized through the examination of historical records and the comparison of these with recent data from PHE TSS and field studies.The tick appears to be expanding its range across areas of the South Downs in Sussex, where there have also been reports of human biting. Movements of sheep may be facilitating its spread. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents preliminary findings towards developing a UK-specific approach to reducing public exposure to woodland questing Ixodes ricinus tick populations by harnessing existing biodiversity-enhancing woodland ride (i.e., linear non-wooded herbaceous habitat either side of track within woodland) management strategies. This preliminary study in an English woodland firstly assesses whether ecological and environmental factors determine presence and density of questing Ixodes ricinus along woodland rides. Secondly, it sets these findings in the context of woodland ride management guidelines in England in order to understand what impact ride management strategies might have on numbers of questing ticks and tick survival. Nymph and adult I. ricinus presence and abundance were modelled in relation to relevant microclimate and ecological parameter variables. Predictor variables for increased questing nymph abundance included ride orientation, mat depth, occurrence of bracken/bramble and animal tracks, ride/path width, and sward height. Ticks thrive in the ecotonal habitat of a woodland ride, therefore we urge woodland managers to consider the impact of their ride management on ticks and human exposure to ticks. Possible recommendations for mitigating questing I. ricinus in line with biodiversity management guidelines rides are discussed in this paper and include seasonal mowing regimes, management of mulch/mat, and bracken/bramble management through use of scalloped ride edges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many factors are involved in determining the latitudinal and altitudinal spread of the important tick vector Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Europe, as well as in changes in the distribution within its prior endemic zones. This paper builds on published literature and unpublished expert opinion from the VBORNET network with the aim of reviewing the evidence for these changes in Europe and discusses the many climatic, ecological, landscape and anthropogenic drivers. These can be divided into those directly related to climatic change, contributing to an expansion in the tick’s geographic range at extremes of altitude in central Europe, and at extremes of latitude in Scandinavia; those related to changes in the distribution of tick hosts, particularly roe deer and other cervids; other ecological changes such as habitat connectivity and changes in land management; and finally, anthropogenically induced changes. These factors are strongly interlinked and often not well quantified. Although a change in climate plays an important role in certain geographic regions, for much of Europe it is non-climatic factors that are becoming increasingly important. How we manage habitats on a landscape scale, and the changes in the distribution and abundance of tick hosts are important considerations during our assessment and management of the public health risks associated with ticks and tick-borne disease issues in 21st century Europe. Better understanding and mapping of the spread of I. ricinus (and changes in its abundance) is, however, essential to assess the risk of the spread of infections transmitted by this vector species. Enhanced tick surveillance with harmonized approaches for comparison of data enabling the follow-up of trends at EU level will improve the messages on risk related to tick-borne diseases to policy makers, other stake holders and to the general public.

Tularemia, caused by Francisella tularensis, is not known to occur in the United Kingdom. We report a case of tularemia diagnosed in July 2023 in a UK patient with no travel in the 6 weeks before symptom onset. We describe the subsequent multiagency investigation into possible routes of acquisition.

Babesiosis, a disease in humans and animals is caused by piroplasms from the genus Babesia and is transmitted by ixodid ticks. Bovine babesiosis, commonly called redwater fever, is reported in cattle from many regions of the British Isles. The presence of Babesia in questing ticks in the United Kingdom (UK) and its potential impact on public and animal health has not been widely studied. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the presence of Babesia spp. in England and Wales using ticks collected over a six-year period. Questing Ixodes ricinus nymphs were collected at 20 recreational areas between 2014 and 2019 and screened for Babesia. Of 3912 nymphs tested, Babesia spp. were detected in 15, giving an overall prevalence of 0.38% [95%CI: 0.21-0.63%]. A number of Babesia species were identified including B. venatorum (n = 9), B. divergens/capreoli (n = 5) and B. odocoilei-like species (n = 1). Based on the low prevalence of Babesia detected in questing I. ricinus nymphs in the recreational areas studied, the likelihood of exposure to Babesia-infected ticks is lower compared to other pathogens more widely studied in the UK (e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l.). However, localized areas of elevated risk may occur in pockets in England and Wales., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors report no declaration of interest., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Anaplasma phagocytophilum ( A. phagocytophilum ) is the aetiological agent of tick-borne fever in cattle and sheep, and granulocytic anaplasmosis in human and dogs. Livestock, companion animal and human infections with A. phagocytophilum have been reported globally. Across England and Wales, two isolates (called ecotypes) have been reported in ticks. This study examined A. phagocytophilum isolates present in livestock and wildlife in Great Britain (GB), with a particular focus on cattle. Clinical submissions (EDTA blood) from cattle ( n = 21) and sheep ( n = 3) were received by APHA for tick-borne disease testing and the animals were confirmed to be infected with A. phagocytophilum using a PCR targeting the Msp 2 gene. Further submissions from roe deer ( n = 2), red deer ( n = 2) and Ixodes ricinus ticks ( n = 22) were also shown to be infected with A. phagocytophilum . Subsequent analysis using a nested PCR targeting the groEL gene and sequencing confirmed the presence of ecotype I in cattle, sheep, red deer and Ixodes ricinus , and ecotype II in roe deer and I. ricinus removed from deer carcasses. Despite the presence of two ecotypes, widely distributed in ticks from England and Wales, only ecotype I was detected in cattle in this study.

BackgroundArthropod vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, sandflies and biting midges are of public and veterinary health significance because of the pathogens they can transmit. Understanding their distributions is a key means of assessing risk. VectorNet maps their distribution in the EU and surrounding areas.AimWe aim to describe the methodology underlying VectorNet maps, encourage standardisation and evaluate output.Methods: Vector distribution and surveillance activity data have been collected since 2010 from a combination of literature searches, field-survey data by entomologist volunteers via a network facilitated for each participating country and expert validation. Data were collated by VectorNet members and extensively validated during data entry and mapping processes.ResultsAs of 2021, the VectorNet archive consisted of ca 475,000 records relating to > 330 species. Maps for 42 species are routinely produced online at subnational administrative unit resolution. On VectorNet maps, there are relatively few areas where surveillance has been recorded but there are no distribution data. Comparison with other continental databases, namely the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and VectorBase show that VectorNet has 5-10 times as many records overall, although three species are better represented in the other databases. In addition, VectorNet maps show where species are absent. VectorNet's impact as assessed by citations (ca 60 per year) and web statistics (58,000 views) is substantial and its maps are widely used as reference material by professionals and the public.ConclusionVectorNet maps are the pre-eminent source of rigorously validated arthropod vector maps for Europe and its surrounding areas.

Human granulocytic anaplasmosis and tick-borne fever, affecting livestock, are diseases caused by an infection with the bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Its transmission dynamics between vertebrate hosts and ticks remain largely unknown and the potential impact on public health in the United Kingdom is unclear. This study aimed to assess the distribution and estimate the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in questing Ixodes ricinus at recreational locations across England and Wales over six years. An additional objective was to investigate possible associations between prevalence, habitat and presence of ruminant hosts. Ixodes ricinus ticks were collected each spring at 20 recreational locations across England and Wales between 2014 and 2019. Nymphs were tested for infection with A. phagocytophilum by detection of bacterial genome in DNA extracts, targeting the msp2 gene locus. Positive samples were further investigated for the presence of different ecotypes based on the GroEL region. Of 3,919 nymphs tested, the mean infection prevalence was 3.6% [95%CI: 3.1-4.3] and ranged from 0 to 20.4%. Northern England had a higher overall prevalence (4.7% [95%CI: 3.4-6.4]) compared to Southern England (1.8% [95%CI: 1.3-2.5]) and the presence of sheep was associated with higher A. phagocytophilum prevalence (8.4% [95%CI: 6.9-10.1] vs 1.2% [95%CI: 0.8-1.7] when absent). There was also a negative correlation with the prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (causing Lyme borreliosis). When investigating the diversity of A. phagocytophilum, ecotype I accounted for 86.8% of samples and ecotype II for 13.2%. Our study presents an overview of A. phagocytophilum prevalence in questing I. ricinus in recreational areas across England and Wales and discusses the potential public and veterinary health relevance., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

The distribution and population size of the red sheep tick (Haemaphysalis punctata) are increasing in Northern Europe, and in the United Kingdom reports of human biting by this species have increased in recent years. To assess the risk of tick-borne disease (TBD) transmission to humans and livestock by H. punctata, ticks sampled from sites in Southern England were screened using PCR for either Borrelia species or piroplasms over a three year period, 2018-2020. A total of 302 H. punctata were collected from eight locations. From these, two Babesia species associated with TBD infections in livestock, Babesia major and Babesia motasi, and the human pathogen Borrelia miyamotoi were detected, predominantly from a single location in Sussex. Consequently, the range expansion of this tick across Southern England may impact public and livestock health., (Crown Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Hyalomma marginatum is widely distributed across the Mediterranean, Northern Africa and the Middle East. Current climate conditions in Northern Europe are thought to limit the species' ability to moult to the adult stage. It is a vector of several pathogens of human and veterinary concern, including Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, for which it is the primary vector in Europe. Here, we report the first human exposure to a locally acquired adult H. marginatum in England, and the second detection in England of Rickettsia aeschlimannii associated with imported Hyalomma., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Overseas travel to regions where ticks are found can increase travellers' exposure to ticks and pathogens that may be unfamiliar to medical professionals in their home countries. Previous studies have detailed non-native tick species removed from recently returned travellers, occasionally leading to travel-associated human cases of exotic tick-borne disease. There are 20 species of tick endemic to the UK, yet UK travellers can be exposed to many other non-native species whilst overseas. Here, we report ticks received by Public Health England's Tick Surveillance Scheme from humans with recent travel history between January 2006 and December 2018. Altogether, 16 tick species were received from people who had recently travelled overseas. Confirmed imports (acquired outside of the UK) were received from people who recently travelled to 22 countries. Possible imports (acquired abroad or within the UK) were received from people who had recently travelled to eight European countries. Species-specific literature reviews highlighted nine of the sixteen tick species are known to vector at least one tick-borne pathogen to humans in the country of acquisition, suggesting travellers exposed to ticks may be at risk of being bitten by a species that is a known vector, with implications for novel tick-borne disease transmission to travellers.

Background: The geographic distribution of Dermacentor reticulatus is expanding in Europe. Surveillance of this tick species and its pathogens is desirable, as it transmits pathogens of public and veterinary importance. A high-throughput real-time PCR-based array was used to screen 1.741 D. reticulatus ticks from Belgium, Germany, The Netherlands, and Great Britain for the presence of 28 tick-borne bacteria and twelve protozoan parasites. The presence of pathogen DNA was confirmed by conventional PCR followed by sequencing., Results: The array detected the presence of DNA from Borrelia spp. (7%), B. afzelii (0.1%) , B. garinii (0.1%) , B. spielmanii (0.1%) , B. miyamotoi (0.2%) , Anaplasma marginale (0.1%) , A. phagocytophilum (0.1%) , Ehrlichia canis (2%) , Rickettsia helvetica (0.2%) , spotted fever group Rickettsia (9.6%), Francisella tularensis or Francisella -like endosymbionts (95%) , Coxiella burnettii (0.1%) , Babesia divergens (0.2%) , B. canis (0.9%) B. vogeli (5.6%) , and Theileria equi (0.1%) . Only the presence of B. canis and spotted fever group Rickettsia could be confirmed by conventional PCR and sequencing. The spotted fever Rickettsia -positive samples were all identified as R. raoultii ., Conclusions: We successfully detected and determined the prevalence of B. canis and R. raoultii in D. reticulatus . An high-throughput array that allows fast and comprehensive testing of tick-borne pathogens is advantageous for surveillance and future epidemiological studies. The importance of thorough validation of real-time PCR-based assays and careful interpretation is evident.

Background: Ixodes ricinus is a three-host tick, a principal vector of Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and one of the main vectors of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus. Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean with subpolar oceanic climate. During the past 3-4 decades, average temperature has increased, supporting more favourable conditions for ticks. Reports of I. ricinus have increased in recent years. If these ticks were able to establish in a changing climate, Iceland may face new threats posed by tick-borne diseases., Methods: Active field surveillance by tick flagging was conducted at 111 sites around Iceland from August 2015 to September 2016. Longworth mammal traps were used to trap Apodemus sylvaticus in southwestern and southern Iceland. Surveillance on tick importation by migratory birds was conducted in southeastern Iceland, using bird nets and a Heligoland trap. Vulpes lagopus carcasses from all regions of the country were inspected for ticks. In addition, existing and new passive surveillance data from two institutes have been merged and are presented. Continental probability of presence models were produced. Boosted Regression Trees spatial modelling methods and its predictions were assessed against reported presence., Results: By field sampling 26 questing I. ricinus ticks (7 males, 3 females and 16 nymphs) were collected from vegetation from three locations in southern and southeastern Iceland. Four ticks were found on migratory birds at their arrival in May 2016. A total of 52 A. sylvaticus were live-trapped but no ticks were found nor on 315 V. lagopus carcasses. Passive surveillance data collected since 1976, reports further 214 I. ricinus ticks from 202 records, with an increase of submissions in recent years. The continental probability of presence model correctly predicts approximately 75% of the recorded presences, but fails to predict a fairly specific category of recorded presence in areas where the records are probably opportunistic and not likely to lead to establishment., Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first finding of questing I. ricinus ticks in Iceland. The species could possibly be established locally in Iceland in low abundance, although no questing larvae have yet been detected to confirm established populations. Submitted tick records have increased recently, which may reflect an increase in exposure, or in interest in ticks. Furthermore, the amount of records on dogs, cats and humans indicate that ticks were acquired locally, presenting a local biting risk. Tick findings on migratory birds highlight a possible route of importation. Obtaining questing larvae is now a priority to confirm that I. ricinus populations are established in Iceland. Further surveys on wild mammals (e.g. Rangifer tarandus), livestock and migratory birds are recommended to better understand their role as potential hosts for I. ricinus.

Landscape change and altered host abundance are major drivers of zoonotic pathogen emergence. Conservation and biodiversity management of landscapes and vertebrate communities can have secondary effects on vector-borne pathogen transmission that are important to assess. Here we review the potential implications of these activities on the risk of Lyme borreliosis in the United Kingdom. Conservation management activities include woodland expansion, management and restoration, deer management, urban greening and the release and culling of non-native species. Available evidence suggests that increasing woodland extent, implementing biodiversity policies that encourage ecotonal habitat and urban greening can increase the risk of Lyme borreliosis by increasing suitable habitat for hosts and the tick vectors. However, this can depend on whether deer population management is carried out as part of these conservation activities. Exclusion fencing or culling deer to low densities can decrease tick abundance and Lyme borreliosis risk. As management actions often constitute large-scale perturbation experiments, these hold great potential to understand underlying drivers of tick and pathogen dynamics. We recommend integrating monitoring of ticks and the risk of tick-borne pathogens with conservation management activities. This would help fill knowledge gaps and the production of best practice guidelines to reduce risks.This article is part of the themed issue 'Conservation, biodiversity and infectious disease: scientific evidence and policy implications'., (© 2017 The Authors.)

Background: The United Kingdom is considered free of autochthonous transmission of canine babesiosis although cases are reported in dogs associated with recent travel abroad. During the winter months of 2015/16, a cluster of cases of disease in dogs with signs suggestive of canine babesiosis were reported in Harlow, Essex., Methods: Babesia species were detected in dog blood samples by Giemsa staining of blood smears and by pan-piroplasm PCRs. Babesia species were also detected in extracts of tick DNA using pan-piroplasm PCRs. DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis was used to confirm the species of Babesia present in dog blood and tick samples. Tick species were identified by PCR-sequencing based on amplification of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit one (cox1) gene. Dermacentor reticulatus ticks were sampled from field sites in England and Wales., Results: Blood smear analysis on samples taken from some of the affected dogs confirmed the presence of a large Babesia species within erythrocytes. A tick recovered from one of these cases was identified as Dermacentor reticulatus, a species with a limited distribution in England and Wales, but a known vector of canine babesiosis in continental Europe. Babesia canis was subsequently identified in blood samples obtained from three clinical cases (all dogs) within the area and from ticks associated with these dogs. A field survey detected 17 adult D. reticulatus ticks from one area visited by the affected dogs. Fourteen of these ticks were shown to be positive for the B. canis parasite, implicating them as a potential source for babesiosis in Harlow. In order to assess whether the parasite is present in more than one tick population, D. reticulatus ticks from across England and Wales were screened for the presence of Babesia species. In addition to the Harlow site, a further five locations where D. reticulatus is present were screened for Babesia species. Babesia was not detected from most sites tested but one tick from a single location in Wales was positive for B. canis., Conclusions: Infection with B. canis was confirmed in a number of dogs in Harlow, Essex, with no history of travel outside of the country. The same pathogen was identified in field-caught D. reticulatus ticks in the same area and is considered the likely source of infection. This highlights the need for vigilance by veterinary surgeons for future outbreaks of tick-borne disease in dogs.

Ixodes ricinus ticks are expanding their geographic range in Europe, both latitudinally in Scandinavia, and altitudinally in the European Alps. This paper details the findings of both passive and active surveillance on the Faroe Islands. Active field surveillance, using tick dragging, was conducted at 38 sites across the main seven inhabited islands of the Faroes during June-August 2015. Field sampling was conducted at all wooded sites on the islands of Vágar, Streymoy, Eysturoy, Borðoy, Kunoy and Suðuroy as well as in urban parks in the capital Tórshavn, among seabird colonies and at a bird observatory on Nólsoy, at moorland sites on Vágar and Borðoy, and a coastal headland on Suðuroy. In addition, as part of the promotion of a new passive surveillance scheme for the Faroes, new tick records were submitted during summer 2015 and early spring 2016. During tick dragging, only three questing I. ricinus ticks (two nymphs, one male) were found at two separate sampling locations in the village of Tvøroyri on the southernmost island of Suðuroy. No questing ticks were found at any other field site. The passive surveillance of ticks identified an additional 33 records of I. ricinus collected during the last 10 years on the Faroes, with almost half of these records from 2015. Although this represents the first finding of questing I. ricinus and overwintering I. ricinus on the Faroe Islands, there appears to be little evidence so far to suggest that Ixodes ricinus are established on the Faroe Islands. Additional reports of ticks through the passive surveillance scheme are reported from seven inhabited islands. Reports of ticks on both companion animals and humans suggest that ticks are being acquired locally, and the records of ticks on migratory birds highlight a possible route of importation. This paper details the likely ecological constraints on I. ricinus establishment and density on Faroe and makes recommendations for future surveillance and research., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Diarrhoeal diseases caused by the intestinal parasites Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica constitute a major global health burden. Nitroimidazoles are first-line drugs for the treatment of giardiasis and amebiasis, with metronidazole 1 being the most commonly used drug worldwide. However, treatment failures in giardiasis occur in up to 20% of cases and development of resistance to metronidazole is of concern. We have re-examined 'old' nitroimidazoles as a foundation for the systematic development of next-generation derivatives. Using this approach, derivatisation of the nitroimidazole carboxamide scaffold provided improved antiparasitic agents. Thirty-three novel nitroimidazole carboxamides were synthesised and evaluated for activity against G. lamblia and E. histolytica. Several of the new compounds exhibited potent activity against G. lamblia strains, including metronidazole-resistant strains of G. lamblia (EC50 = 0.1-2.5 μM cf. metronidazole EC50 = 6.1-18 μM). Other compounds showed improved activity against E. histolytica (EC50 = 1.7-5.1 μM cf. metronidazole EC50 = 5.0 μM), potent activity against Trichomonas vaginalis (EC50 = 0.6-1.4 μM cf. metronidazole EC50 = 0.8 μM) and moderate activity against the intestinal bacterial pathogen Clostridium difficile (0.5-2 μg/mL, cf. metronidazole = 0.5 μg/mL). The new compounds had low toxicity against mammalian kidney and liver cells (CC50 > 100 μM), and selected antiparasitic hits were assessed for human plasma protein binding and metabolic stability in liver microsomes to demonstrate their therapeutic potential., (Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.. All rights reserved.)

Among the invasive mosquitoes registered all over the world, Aedes species are particularly frequent and important. As several of them are potential vectors of disease, they present significant health concerns for 21st century Europe. Five species have established in mainland Europe, with two (Aedes albopictus and Aedes japonicus) becoming widespread and two (Ae. albopictus and Aedes aegypti) implicated in disease transmission to humans in Europe. The routes of importation and spread are often enigmatic, the ability to adapt to local environments and climates are rapid, and the biting nuisance and vector potential are both an ecomonic and public health concern. Europeans are used to cases of dengue and chikungunya in travellers returning from the tropics, but the threat to health and tourism in mainland Europe is substantive. Coupled to that are the emerging issues in the European overseas territorities and this paper is the first to consider the impacts in the remoter outposts of Europe. If entomologists and public health authorities are to address the spread of these mosquitoes and mitigate their health risks they must first be prepared to share information to better understand their biology and ecology, and share data on their distribution and control successes. This paper focusses in greater detail on the entomological and ecological aspects of these mosquitoes to assist with the risk assessment process, bringing together a large amount of information gathered through the ECDC VBORNET project.

Activity demand models for delivery of the Healthy Child Programme (HCP) through the school nursing workforce are limited. This paper describes the application of a potentially new activity demand model for school nursing. The model identifies what the demand for school nursing is in Staffordshire, using estimated delivery times of universal and targeted components from the HCP, numbers of children and local information around targeted activity, eg, numbers of looked after children. The model suggests that the school nursing service would spend around 60% of time on individual face to face activity, 30% on public health leadership, management and evaluation and the 10% on travel in Staffordshire. It also suggests a shortfall in workforce capacity. The model can be used to underpin commissioning decisions and service redesign and changes in practice would be required to meet the full requirements of the HCP.

Ganglioside GD2 is a cell surface glycosphingolipid. Targeting of GD2, i.e., by anti-GD2 mAb 3F8, is used clinically for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. Here, the conformations of free GD2, and of GD2 bound to mAb 3F8, were resolved by saturation transfer difference NMR and molecular modeling. Then, three small-molecule cyclic peptide ligands that bind to GD2 selectively were designed. Transferred nuclear Overhauser enhancement of the GD2-bound conformation of the peptide ligands showed an induced-fit binding mechanism. The mAb 3F8 and the peptidic GD2 ligands mediate similar biological functions in cell-based assays of calcium fluxes and src activation. Thus, small molecules can selectively and functionally interact with a sugar head group. This work furthers the concept of rationally designing ligands for carbohydrate targets, and may be expanded to other clinically relevant gangliosides., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)