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Materialism describes the constant striving to increase and present one's possessions in the form of both material and immaterial goods. Social media, such as Instagram or Twitter, offer materialists new opportunities to pursue and satisfy their materialistic needs and goals. Preliminary work has already shown that materialists use social media to compare their possessions with those of other users and to accumulate digital possessions (in the form of friendships or followers). However, materialistic use of social media does not only bring benefits but could also negatively impact satisfaction with life (as a marker of subjective well-being) under certain conditions. In an online study (N = 1230), we examined the extent to which materialism on social media is associated with lower satisfaction with life. Evaluation of a sequential mediation model revealed that highly materialistic participants exhibited higher social comparison orientation, stronger associations with passive social media use as well as social media addiction, and thus reported higher stress experience resulting in lower satisfaction with life. Further results as well as limitations of the study and an outlook are discussed.

Abstract Background As photo editing behavior to enhance one?s appearance in photos becomes more and more prevalent on social network sites (SNSs), potential risks are increasingly discussed as well. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior, self-objectification, physical appearance comparisons, self-perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem. Methods 403 participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring the aformentioned constructs. A parallel-sequential multiple mediation model was conducted to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior and self-esteem considering multiple mediators. Results The results indicate that photo editing behavior is negatively related to self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem mediated via self-objectification and physical appearance comparisons. Conclusions The postulated mediation model was justified by our data. Thus, SNS users should be aware of potential negative consequences when using photo editing applications or filters.

A lot of research has been conducted to explore the high amount of daily usage time on social networking sites (SNSs). We suggest a two-dimensional frame of reference for investigating the usage of SNSs, which incorporates both four motives for usage and mode of usage in terms of active/passive usage. A special feature of the item construction was to combine the motive facet and the active/passive facet as integral dimensions in the formulation of items. The advantage of this approach is the comprehensive assessment of SNS use with high content validity. Till now, such a measure, which is based on the two-dimensional frame of reference, does not exist. To fill the gap the aim of our study was to develop the Motives to use SNSs Scale (MOTUS) assessing: (1) active as well as passive use and (2) underlying motives by conducting two studies (N1 = 597, N2 = 437). Study 1 focused on item development, item reduction, and identification of factor structure. The analysis resulted in an eight-factor structure that represented active and passive domains of each motive. Study 2 confirmed this factor structure by showing good values for model fit. The results confirmed the construct validity of the MOTUS. Results are discussed with respect to applications and limitations of the new measure.

The aim of this study was to develop a behavioral report to assess Social Media Use (SMU) distinguishing between rather active and rather passive uses, namely the Social Media Activity Questionnaire (SMAQ). We recruited 1230 participants (963 females) testing its goodness-of-fit. Both the exploratory and the confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the two-factor-structure of the SMAQ. Internal consistency analyses indicated a high level of reliability for both scales. Furthermore, the results represent evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the SMAQ scales. The results indicated that Facebook Activity as well as symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress were more closely linked to active than to passive SMU. In contrast, social comparison orientation, social media flow experience, social media addiction, fear of missing out, and the social media intensity were more closely linked to passive use than to active use. Thus, the SMAQ represents a straightforward, profound, economical, standardized, valid and reliable measure of SMU. Finally, applications of the SMAQ scales are discussed and limitations of the study are outlined.

Social networks are gaining widespread popularity, with Instagram currently being the most intensively used network. On these platforms, users are continuously exposed to self-relevant information that fosters social comparisons. A distinction is made between ability-based and opinion-based comparison dimensions. To experimentally investigate the influence of these comparison dimensions on users’ subjective well-being, an online exposure experiment (N = 409) was conducted. In a preliminary study (N = 107), valid exposure stimulus material was selected in advance. The results of the main study indicated that the exposure to ability-related social comparisons in the context of social media elicited lower well-being than exposure to opinion-related social comparisons. The theoretical and practical implications of this study consist of including the findings in clinical settings, e.g., affective disorder therapy, and the identification and reduction of ability-related content on social networking sites (SNSs). Future work should include assimilation and contrast effects which might interact with social comparison orientation and well-being.

Introduction: The current study investigated the association between loneliness and depression symptoms, as well as vulnerable and grandiose narcissism. Methods: An online survey was conducted obtaining a sample of 701 German-speaking participants (age: M (SD) = 24.17 (5.64), range: 18–58). Results: A positive association between loneliness and the occurrence of depression symptoms was revealed. Furthermore, the link between loneliness and depression symptoms was moderated by both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Limitations: The sample consisted of a majority of university students limiting the generalizability of the findings. In addition, self-reports were used without obtaining experimental evidence. Conclusions: Narcissism is identified as a moderator of the relationship between loneliness and depression symptoms. More specifically, both high grandiose narcissism and high vulnerable narcissism enhance the association between loneliness and depression symptoms.

In the context of COVID-19 virus containment, there is a lack of acceptance of preventive measures in the population. The present work investigated which factors influence the belief in scientific propositions compared with belief in conspiracy theories. The focus here was on the determinants of conspiracy beliefs in the context of COVID-19 related media content. Using an online questionnaire (N = 175), results indicate that scientific compared to conspiracy-theoretical media content led to higher acceptance. Furthermore, need for cognition (NFC-K), a conspiracy-theoretical worldview (CMQ), and openness to experience (NEO-FFI) were positively associated with conspiracy beliefs derived from Facebook postings. In addition, a conspiracy-theoretical worldview was negatively associated with belief in scientific media content. Furthermore, agreeableness was unrelated to conspiracy beliefs, although it was positively associated with conspiracy-theoretical worldview. The results imply promising persuasion strategies for reducing conspiracy-theoretical beliefs and to increase the acceptance of preventive measures.

Introduction: People who experience high levels of daily stress often resort to intensive social media use (SMU). In the short-term, this can contribute to relief and positive emotions. However, in the longer-term, intensive online activity can foster addictive tendencies. The present longitudinal study investigated the association between daily stress and addictive SMU. Methods: Data were assessed in a sample of 211 social media users (Mage (SDage) = 22.50 (5.00)) from Germany via online surveys at two measurement time points in winter 2020 (baseline, BL), and three months later in spring 2020 during the first Covid-19 lockdown (follow-up, FU). Results: In moderated mediation analyses, the positive relationship between daily stress (BL) and addictive SMU (BL) and (FU) was significantly mediated by the level of perceived online social support (BL). Physical activity (BL) (e.g., jogging and cycling) significantly moderated the relationship between online social support (BL) and addictive SMU (BL) and (FU). Specifically, the association between both variables was significant for medium and low frequency of physical activity, but not for high frequency. Limitations: The mostly female and relatively young sample composition limits the generalizability of the present findings. No experimental manipulation of the potential predictors of addictive SMU was introduced limiting the causal interpretation of the current results. Conclusions: The current findings disclose mechanisms that could reduce the risk of addictive SMU. Specifically, a conscious increase of physical activity could prevent the transformation of positive emotions evoked by the perception of online social support into addictive tendencies.

Introduction: The present study investigated mechanisms that may contribute to the enhanced risk of narcissistic individuals to develop Facebook addiction. Methods: In a sample of 449 Facebook users (age: M(SD) = 31.07(9.52), range: 18–65) the personality trait narcissism, Facebook flow, intensity of Facebook use, and Facebook addiction were assessed by an online survey. Results: In a moderated mediation analysis, the positive relationship between narcissism and Facebook addiction was positively mediated by the level of flow experienced on Facebook. Intensity of Facebook use moderated the positive association between Facebook flow and Facebook addiction. Conclusions: Excessive Facebook use may cause psychological dependence. Narcissistic individuals are at enhanced risk for this form of dependence that is fostered by experience of flow during Facebook use and intensity of Facebook use. Current results should be taken into account, when assessing individuals at risk for pathological Facebook use and when planning specific interventions to deal with it.

Vulnerable narcissism and grandiose narcissism share the core of the narcissistic self but are considered as separate forms of this personality trait. While previous research mainly focused on the mechanisms that connect grandiose narcissism and addictive use of the social platform Facebook, it remained unclear why individuals with enhanced levels of vulnerable narcissism are at risk to develop Facebook Addiction (FA). The present study investigated the links between vulnerable and grandiose narcissism, anxiety symptoms, and FA. In a sample of 327 Facebook users (age: M(SD) = 23.67(3.96), range: 18-56), both forms of narcissism were positively related to anxiety symptoms and FA. Moreover, the association between both forms of narcissism and FA was partly mediated by anxiety symptoms. Results enter new territory by revealing hidden similarities between vulnerable and grandiose narcissists, emphasizing that similar mechanisms might explain their enhanced risk to develop addictive tendencies of Facebook use. These findings should be considered when assessing individuals at risk for FA and when developing (therapeutic) intervention programs to deal with problematic use of social platforms.

Past research showed that social networking sites represent perfect platforms to satisfy narcissistic needs. The present study aimed to investigate how grandiose (GN) and vulnerable narcissism (VN) as well as social comparisons are associated with Facebook activity, which was measured with a self-report on three activity dimensions: Acting, Impressing, and Watching. In addition, the state self-esteem (SSE) was measured with respect to performance, social behavior, and appearance. One hundred and ten participants completed an online survey containing measures of SSE and Facebook activity and a priming procedure with three experimental conditions embedded in a social media context (upward comparison, downward comparison, and control group). Results indicated, as expected, that high VN was negatively associated with SSE on each subscale and the overall score. In addition, it was found that VN, but not GN, displayed positive associations with frequency of Facebook activities. Finally, it was proposed and confirmed that VN in interaction with the priming of downward comparisons negatively affected SSE. The conclusion drawn is that VN represents a key variable for the prediction of self-esteem as well as for the frequency of Facebook activity.

The present study investigated the relationship between flow experienced when using Facebook (Facebook flow; i.e., experience of intensive enjoyment and pleasure generated by Facebook use due to which the Facebook activity is continued even at high costs of this behavior) and Facebook Addiction Disorder (FAD). In a sample of 398 Facebook users (age: M (SD) = 33.01 (11.23), range: 18-64), the significant positive association between Facebook flow and FAD was positively moderated by the intensity of Facebook use. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that all six items assessing FAD loaded on the same factor as two items belonging to the subscale telepresence of Facebook flow. Therefore, the close link between Facebook flow and FAD may in particular result from the immersion in an attractive online world created by Facebook, where users escape to forget their everyday obligations and problems. Present results provide first evidence that Facebook flow may be an anteceded of FAD and indicate the mechanisms that may contribute to its development and maintenance. Practical applications for future studies and limitations of present results are discussed.

In this study, the equity approach is applied to heterosexual partnerships. Specifically, this study focuses on the effects of perceived unfairness of the division of household labour and violated expectations concerning the division of household tasks on satisfaction and anger in heterosexual partnerships. 92 persons who currently lived with a partner answered a questionnaire about their expectations and actual performance of 21 household tasks. Results indicated that women expected to perform and actually performed the 21 tasks more often than their partners. Men expected to perform and actually performed the tasks less often than their partners. Moreover, women performed the tasks more frequently than they expected, whereas men performed the tasks less frequently than they expected. Finally, the results indicated that unequal contributions to household tasks and relationship quality are correlated: Respondents experienced more satisfaction and less anger when they perceived the contributions as more equal (compared with their partners). In contrast, depending on violated expectations with regard to household tasks, no significant differences in satisfaction and anger were found between respondents. Zusammenfassung In dieser Studie wird der Ansatz der Equity-Forschung auf heterosexuelle Partnerschaften angewandt. Im einzelnen befasst sich die Untersuchung mit der Frage, inwieweit sich Unfairness und verletzte Erwartungen bei der Verteilung der Hausarbeit auf die Beziehungszufriedenheit und den erlebten Ärger in der Beziehung auswirken. Es wurden 92 Personen, die mit ihrem Partner zusammenlebten, nach ihren Erwartungen und ihrem tatsächlichen Verhalten bezüglich der Ausführung von 21 Tätigkeiten im Haushalt befragt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Männer erwarten, diese Tätigkeiten seltener zu verrichten als ihre Partnerin, während Frauen erwarten, diese Tätigkeiten häufiger zu verrichten als ihr Partner. Zudem zeigt sich, dass Frauen viel häufiger Hausarbeiten ausführen als ihr Partner, während Männer viel seltener Hausarbeiten ausführen als ihre Partnerin, und dass Frauen diese Tätigkeiten noch häufiger ausführen als sie es erwarten und Männer diese Tätigkeiten noch seltener ausführen als sie es erwarten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen weiterhin, dass bei Ungleichverteilung im Haushalt weniger Zufriedenheit und mehr Ärger in der Beziehung erlebt wird als bei fairer Aufteilung der Hausarbeit. Erwartungsverletzungen hingegen stehen nicht im Zusammenhang mit der Zufriedenheit und dem erlebten Ärger in der Partnerschaft.

This study examines whether men and women differ from each other with respect to frequency and type of infidelity, and whether style of loving, style of commitment, sexual attitudes and genderrole orientation influence reported infidelity. We interviewed 96 subjects who were between 19 and 35 years of age and living in a relationship at the time of the study. The results show that men and women report similar frequency of infidelity and that they do not significantly differ in the type of infidelity (emotional vs. sexual), when the subject’s age is controlled for. An age effect was that older persons reported more frequent infidelity than younger persons. Our test of the hypothesis indicated that playful and romantic love, permissive and instrumental sexual attitudes, and an avoidance style of commitment were related to infidelity. Playful and romantic love and sexual attitudes were independent predictors of infidelity. Zusammenfassung Diese Untersuchung befasst sich mit der Frage, ob sich Männer und Frauen hinsichtlich der Häufigkeit und der Art der Untreue unterscheiden und ob Liebesstile, Bindungsstile, Sexuelle Einstellungen und Geschlechtsrollenorientierung einen Einfluss auf das berichtete Untreueverhalten haben. Befragt wurden 96 Personen zwischen 19 und 35 Jahren, die zur Zeit der Untersuchung in einer Beziehung lebten. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass Männer und Frauen gleich häufig über Untreue berichteten und dass sie sich in der Form der Untreue (emotional vs. sexuell) nicht bedeutend unterschieden, wenn das Alter der Befragten kontrolliert wurde. Ein Alterseffekt bestand darin, dass ältere Personen häufiger Untreue zum Ausdruck brachten als jüngere. Die Prüfung der Hypothesen ergab, dass spielerische und romantische Liebe, permissive und instrumentelle sexuelle Einstellungen und ein vermeidender Bindungsstil mit Untreue zusammenhingen. Spielerische und romantische Liebe sowie sexuelle Einstellungen erwiesen sich als unabhängige Prädiktoren der Untreue.

This study is concerned with the differences between couples who live together and apart, respectively, on basic relationship dimensions. In addition, explanations for these differences are examined Measures include relationship scales which tap conflict, love, altruism, investment, and security and an experience questionnaire. 125 persons between 20 and 40 years of age who currently had a romantic partner took part in the study. Results indicate that couples living together express higher investment and less love than couples living apart. The love effect was interpreted by assuming that living together and having children has negative consequences on how partners spend their time together which in turn influences the expressed love negatively. This explanation was supported by a LISREL-analysis. Zusammenfassung Diese Untersuchung befasst sich mit der Frage, wie sich zusammen und getrennt wohnende Paare bezüglich grundlegender Beziehungsmerkmale unterscheiden und wie diese Unterschiede zu erklären sind. Als Messverfahren dienten Beziehungsskalen, die Konflikt, Liebe, Altruismus, Investment und Sicherheit erfassen, sowie ein zusätzlicher Erhebungsfragebogen zu den Erfahrungen in der Partnerschaft. Befragt wurden 125 Personen zwischen 20 und 40 Jahren, die zur Zeit der Untersuchung einen romantischen Partner hatten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass zusammen wohnende Paare sich von getrennt wohnenden durch ein höheres Investment und eine geringere Liebesausprägung unterscheiden. Der Liebeseffekt wurde durch die Annahme interpretiert, dass sich das Zusammenwohnen und Vorhandensein von Kindern negativ darauf auswirkt, wie Partner ihre gemeinsame Zeit miteinander verbringen. Dies wiederum beeinflusst die Liebesausprägung ungünstig. Für die Unterschiede auf der Skala Liebe konnte eine LISREL-Analyse die Interpretation der Ergebnisse unterstützen.