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The metabolizable energy (ME) in corn was greater (P

The apparent total tract digestibility and retention of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) and concentrations of digestible energy and metabolizable energy in diets fed to late-gestating sows were not affected by Ca and P levels, but they were increased by dietary supplementation with 1-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol. There was no interaction between dietary Ca and P and supplementation with 1-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol.

Two experiments were conducted to determine standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and the concentration of metabolizable energy (ME) in non-heat-treated and heat-treated soybean expellers (L-0, L-12, and L-48). L-0 underwent short-term steam conditioning for 60 s, whereas L-12 and L-48 underwent short-term steam conditioning for 60 s and long-term steam conditioning for 12 or 48 min. All heat-treated soybean expellers were expander processed. In experiment 1, 10 ileal-cannulated barrows (54.22 ± 4.54 kg) were allotted to a replicated 5 × 4 Youden square design with eight replicate pigs per diet. Each source of soybean expellers was included in one diet, and a nitrogen-free diet was also used. Results indicated that the SID of AA in non-heat-treated soybean expellers was less (P

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that inclusion of a conventional torula yeast or a torula yeast produced from forestry byproducts (i.e., woody torula yeast) in diets for weanling pigs instead of fish meal and plasma protein improves growth performance and intestinal health of pigs. A total of 120 weanling pigs (6.53 ± 0.78 kg) were allotted to three treatments with ten replicate pens per diet. Pigs were fed one of three diets from days 1 to 14 post-weaning (phase 1), whereas all pigs were fed a common diet in phase 2 (days 15 to 28). The three treatments in phase 1 included a control diet with 5% fish meal, 3.5% plasma protein, and no torula yeast. The second diet contained 1.5% fish meal, 14% woody torula yeast, and no plasma protein, whereas the third diet contained 1.5% fish meal, 14% conventional torula yeast, and no plasma protein. Fecal scores were assessed every other day. On day 7, one pig per pen was euthanized to collect ileal tissue and mucosa for determination of morphology and for ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequencing analysis. At the end of phases 1 and 2, blood samples were collected and concentrations of cytokines, plasma urea nitrogen (PUN), peptide YY, immunoglobulin G, total protein, and albumin were analyzed. Results indicated that both torula yeast sources could replace fish meal and plasma protein without affecting growth performance, intestinal morphology, or blood characteristics of pigs. Pigs fed a diet containing torula yeast had improved (P < 0.05) fecal scores during phase 1. Pigs fed the conventional torula yeast diet had greater (P < 0.05) concentration of interleukin-2 compared with pigs fed the control diet. On day 14, greater (P < 0.05) concentrations of interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 were observed in pigs fed the diet containing the woody torula yeast or conventional torula yeast compared with pigs fed the control diet. Results from the RNA sequencing indicated that 19 of 24 analyzed genes involved in digestion and absorption of protein and vitamins were downregulated in pigs fed the diet containing woody torula yeast compared with pigs fed the control diet. However, only two genes (i.e., ANKS4B and FAM54A) were downregulated in pigs fed the woody torula yeast diet compared with the conventional torula yeast diet. In conclusion, using woody or conventional torula yeast instead of fish meal and plasma protein in the phase 1 diet for weanling pigs may improve intestinal health without influencing growth performance of pigs.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that growth performance and health status of pigs will not be reduced if hybrid rye is included in diets at the expense of corn during the initial 5 wk post-weaning. A total of 128 weanling pigs (5.6 ± 0.5 kg) were randomly allotted to 32 pens and 4 dietary treatments. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 35 d in three phases with days 1 to 7 being phase 1, days 8 to 21 being phase 2, and days 22 to 35 being phase 3. Within each phase, a control diet primarily based on corn and soybean meal was formulated, and three additional diets were formulated by including 8.0, 16.0, or 24.0% (phase 1), 16.0, 32.0, or 48.0% (phase 2), and 20.0, 40.0, or 60.3% (phase 3) hybrid rye in the diet at the expense of corn. Pig weights were recorded at the start and conclusion of each phase, fecal scores were visually assessed every other day on a pen basis, and blood samples were obtained from 1 pig per pen on days 21 and 35. Results indicated that average daily gain (ADG) in phase 1 increased (linear, P < 0.05) as the inclusion of hybrid rye increased, but no other differences in ADG were observed. Average daily feed intake linearly increased in phase 1, phase 3, and overall (P < 0.05) as hybrid rye inclusion increased in the diets, and gain:feed was negatively impacted by the inclusion of hybrid rye in the diet (phase 1, linear, P < 0.05; phases 2, 3, and overall, quadratic, P < 0.05). No differences in average fecal scores or diarrhea incidence were observed. On days 21 and 35, blood urea N increased (linear, P < 0.05) as hybrid rye increased in the diets; and on day 21, serum total protein also increased (linear, P < 0.05) with increasing hybrid rye inclusion in the diet. Mean blood hemoglobin concentration on day 35 increased and then decreased as hybrid rye inclusion increased (quadratic, P < 0.05). On day 21, interleukin (IL) 2 and IL 10 decreased and then increased (quadratic, P < 0.05) as hybrid rye inclusion increased. On day 35, IL 8 and IL 12 increased and then decreased (quadratic, P < 0.05) and interferon-gamma decreased and then increased (quadratic, P < 0.01) as hybrid rye inclusion increased. In conclusion, the ADG of pigs was not different among treatments, but at the highest hybrid rye inclusion level, pigs consumed more feed than if corn was fed and gain:feed was reduced with increasing hybrid rye in diets. Differences in blood serum cytokines indicate the immune system was affected differently when hybrid rye instead of corn was fed.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that inclusion of spray dried plasma (SDP) in diets increases apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and/or the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of gross energy (GE) and nutrients in diets for young pigs, and that ATTD of energy and nutrients or STTD of P in individual ingredients are additive in diets containing SDP. Eighty barrows (body weight: 9.30 ± 0.97 kg) were housed in individual metabolism crates and allotted to 1 of 10 diets in a randomized complete block design with 8 replicate pigs per diet. Four diets were prepared without SDP and contained ingredients commonly used in the United States, Canada, the European Union, or Asia. Four additional diets were prepared by mixing 94% of the previous four diets and 6% SDP. A diet containing SDP as the sole source of P and a P-free diet were also formulated. The ATTD of GE and nutrients and the STTD of P were calculated in all diets except the P-free diet and for the four regional diets containing 6% SDP, values were also predicted from the digestibility obtained in SDP alone and the regional diets without SDP. Differences between measured and predicted values for digestibility of GE and nutrients were also calculated. An interaction was observed between SDP and region for the ATTD of soluble dietary fiber where the digestibility decreased (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the U.S. diet with 6% SDP compared with 0% SDP, but that was not the case for the other regional diets. There was no interaction for the ATTD of GE, N, insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), Ca, and P or the STTD of P, but the ATTD and STTD values were greater (P < 0.05) or tended to be greater (P < 0.10%) when 6% SDP was included in the diet compared with diets with 0% SDP. The ATTD of GE, IDF, TDF, and P, and the STTD of P was greater (P < 0.05) for the Asia diet compared with the other diets regardless of inclusion of SDP. The measured ATTD of IDF and TDF was greater (P < 0.05) than the predicted values for the U.S. and European Union diets, and the measured ATTD of GE, N, Ca, and P and the STTD of P was greater (P < 0.05) than the predicted values for the Asia diet. In conclusion, addition of 6% SDP to a diet will increase the ATTD of energy and nutrients and the STTD of P in diets for weanling pigs, and in some cases, the measured ATTD of energy and nutrients or the STTD of P by pigs fed diets containing SDP is greater than predicted from individual ingredients.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that there are no differences among samples of sunflower coproducts in apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP), and acid hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), total dietary fiber (TDF), insoluble dietary fiber, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), or in metabolizable energy (ME) regardless of where the ingredient was produced. Six samples of sunflower meal (SFM) were obtained from the United States (two samples), Ukraine (two samples), Hungary, and Italy. A sample of sunflower expellers (SFE) from the United States was also used. A corn-based control diet and 7 diets containing corn and each sample of sunflower coproducts were formulated. Sixty-four barrows (initial weight = 31.5 ± 3.2 kg) were allotted to 8 diets using a randomized complete block design with four blocks of pigs from four different weaning groups. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feed was provided at three times energy requirement for maintenance. Feces and urine were collected for four days after seven days of adaptation to diets. Results indicated that the ATTD of GE and CP in SFE was less (P

BACKGROUND: Arabinoxylan is the main fiber component in corn and corn co-products that are commonly included in pig diets. However, this fiber fraction is resistant to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid are covalently linked to arabinoxylan, so it is likely that the majority of these hydroxycinnamic acids are excreted in feces. However, data to confirm this have not been reported. The objective of this research was therefore to quantify the ferulic and p-coumaric acids in a diet based on corn and soybean meal (SBM) and in a diet based on corn, SBM, and distillers’ dried grains with solubles, as well as in feces from pigs fed these diets. RESULTS: The concentration of bound ferulic and coumaric acids in diets was greater in the corn-SBM-DDGS diet and in feces from pigs fed this diet than in the corn-SBM diet and feces from pigs fed that diet. The disappearance of free coumaric acids was greater (>85%) than that of bound phenolic acids (

Spray dried plasma (SDP) is commonly used in phase 1 diets for weanling pigs, but it is unknown if SDP affects energy or nutrient digestibility of the subsequent diet. Therefore, two experiments were conducted to test the null-hypothesis that inclusion of SDP in a phase 1 diet fed to weanling pigs will not affect energy or nutrient digestibility of a phase 2 diet without SDP. In experiment 1, 16 newly weaned barrows with an initial body weight (BW) of 4.47 ± 0.35 kg were randomly allotted to a phase 1 diet without SDP or a diet including 6% SDP for 14 d. Both diets were fed on an ad libitum basis. All pigs (BW: 6.92 ± 0.42 kg) had a T-cannula surgically inserted in the distal ileum, moved to individual pens, and fed the common phase 2 diet for 10 d with ileal digesta collection on days 9 and 10. In experiments 2, 24 newly weaned barrows (initial BW: 6.60 ± 0.22 kg) were randomly allotted to phase 1 diets without SDP or a diet containing 6% SDP for 20 d. Both diets were provided on an ad libitum basis. All pigs (BW: 9.37 ± 1.40 kg) were then moved to individual metabolism crates and fed the common phase 2 diet for 14 d with the initial 5 d being the adaptation period to the diet followed by 7 d of fecal and urine collection according to the marker-to-marker procedure. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch, crude protein (CP), amino acids (AA), and acid hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), was determined in experiment 1, and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), insoluble-, soluble-, and total-dietary fiber, Ca, and P, and the retention and biological value of N were determined in experiment 2. The statistical model included diet as fixed effect and block and pig within block as random effects. Results of experiment 1 indicated that the AID of starch, CP, AEE, and AA in phase 2 were not affected by phase 1 treatment. Results of experiment 2 indicated that the ATTD of GE, insoluble-, soluble-, and total-dietary fiber, Ca, and P and N retention and biological value in phase 2 were also not affected by phase 1 treatment. In conclusion, feeding weanling pigs a diet with 6% SDP in phase 1 did not affect the AID or ATTD of energy and nutrients in a phase 2 diet without SDP.

Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that values for standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and metabolizable energy (ME) in a the cheese coproduct are greater than in fish meal or enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESBM). The second objective was to test the hypothesis that pigs fed a diet containing cheese coproduct will have growth performance that is not different from that of pigs fed other sources of protein. In experiment 1, eight ileal-cannulated barrows (11.0 ± 0.4 kg) were allotted to a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with four diets and four periods and two pigs per diet in each period. The four diets included an N-free diet and three diets that contained ESBM, fish meal, or the cheese coproduct as the source of AA. Results indicated that the cheese coproduct had greater (P < 0.05) SID of most AA compared with ESBM and fish meal. In experiment 2, 32 weanling barrows (14.0 ± 1.1 kg) were housed individually in metabolism crates and randomly allotted to one of four diets. A corn-based diet and three diets that contained corn and ESBM, fish meal, or cheese coproduct were formulated. Feces and urine were collected quantitatively. The ME in cheese coproduct was greater (P < 0.05) than in ESBM and fish meal. In experiment 3, 128 weaned pigs (6.2 ± 0.6 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with four treatments and 8 replicate pens per diet. Phase 1 diets that contained 0%, 6.65%, 7.35%, or 14% cheese coproduct were fed from days 1 to 14 and a common phase 2 diet without cheese coproduct was fed from days 15 to 28. Individual pig weights were recorded at the beginning of the experiment, on days 14 and 28, and daily feed allotments were also recorded. Two blood samples were collected from 1 pig per pen on day 14 to analyze for blood urea N, albumin, total plasma protein, peptide YY, immunoglobulin G, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10. No differences were observed in average daily gain among treatments, but there was a tendency (P < 0.10) for total protein on day 14 to increase as cheese coproduct increased in the diets. In conclusion, the cheese coproduct used in this experiment has a greater SID of AA and greater ME than ESBM and fish meal and the cheese coproduct may be included in prestarter diets for weanling pigs without negatively impacting growth performance or indicators of intestinal health.

Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that corn kernel hardness and drying temperature influence the ileal digestibility of starch and amino acids (AA), as well as apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) and total dietary fiber (TDF) in diets for growing pigs. Two corn varieties with average or hard endosperm were grown and harvested under similar conditions, and after harvest, each variety was divided into 2 batches that were dried at 35 and 120 °C, respectively. Therefore, four batches of corn were used. In experiment 1, 10 pigs (67.00 ± 2.98 kg) with a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were allotted to a replicated 5 × 5 Latin square design with 5 diets and 5 periods giving 10 replicates per diet. A nitrogen-free diet and four diets containing each source of corn as the only AA source were formulated. Results indicated that neither variety of corn nor drying temperature influenced apparent ileal digestibility of starch in the grain. The standardized ileal digestibility of most AA was less (P

Determine digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) for animal- and plant-based burgers and test the hypothesis that DIAAS calculated for a burger and a burger bun is additive in a combined meal. Ten ileal cannulated gilts were fed experimental diets for six 9-d periods with ileal digesta being collected on d 8 and 9 of each period. Six diets contained a burger (i.e., 80% lean beef, 93% lean beef, 80% lean pork, Impossible Burger, or Beyond Burger) or a burger bun as the sole source of crude protein and amino acids. Three additional diets were based on a combination of the bun and 80% beef, pork, or Impossible Burger. A nitrogen-free diet was also used. The DIAAS for all ingredients and mixed meals was calculated for children from 6 months to 3 years and for individuals older than 3 years, and DIAAS for combined meals was predicted from individual ingredient DIAAS. The 93% lean beef and the pork burgers had greater (P

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that increasing levels of a novel phytase increases the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients in diets fed to young pigs. A negative control (NC) diet based on corn, soybean meal, and canola meal that contained approximately 0.83% phytate (i.e., 0.23% phytate-bound P) was formulated to be deficient in Ca, P, and standardized ileal digestible amino acids (AA). Five additional diets were formulated by adding 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, or 4,000 phytase units/kg of the novel phytase to the NC diets. Eighteen ileal-cannulated pigs (17.81 ± 1.71 kg) were allotted to a 6 × 3 incomplete Latin square design with six diets and three 11-day periods. There were three pigs per diet in each period; therefore, there were nine replicate pigs per diet. The initial 5 d of each period was considered an adaptation period to the diet. For each period, fecal samples were collected via anal stimulation on days 6, 7, 8, and 9, whereas ileal digesta were collected on days 10 and 11 using standard procedures. Results indicated that the AID of crude protein, indispensable AA, and dispensable AA was increased (quadratic, P0.05) as the concentration of microbial phytase increased in the diets. Dietary inclusion of the novel phytase at 1,000 or 2,000 FTU/kg increased the AID of total AA from 73.7% to 79.8%. Increasing levels of microbial phytase increased (quadratic, P0.05) the AID of dry matter and minerals (i.e., Ca, P, K, Mg, Cu) in the diets. Likewise, a linear increase (P0.05) in the AID of ash and Na was observed as the inclusion level of phytase increased in the diets. Increasing levels of microbial phytase increased (linear, P0.01) the AID of gross energy (GE) and starch in the diets. A quadratic (P0.05) increase in the ATTD of ash, Ca, P, K, and Cu in experimental diets was observed as the concentration of microbial phytase increased in the diets. The ATTD of Mg and GE also increased (linear; P0.05) as concentration of dietary phytase increased. In conclusion, the novel microbial phytase used in this experiment was effective in increasing the AID of dry matter, GE, starch, minerals, and AA, as well as the ATTD of gross energy and minerals in diets formulated to be deficient in Ca, P, and AA.The effect of microbial phytase on amino acid (AA) digestibility has been inconsistent, but in many experiments, relatively low levels of phytase were used and it is not known if greater concentrations of phytase are needed to increase AA digestibility. A novel consensus bacterial 6-phytase variant has been recently developed, but it is not known if this phytase results in increased digestibility of AA and other nutrients. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that dietary inclusion of increasing levels of the novel phytase (i.e., 0, 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 phytase units/kg) increases ileal digestibility of AA and total tract digestibility of energy and minerals in diets for growing pigs. In this experiment, it was demonstrated that increasing levels of phytase increased the apparent ileal digestibility of starch, gross energy, minerals, crude protein, and AA, as well as the apparent total tract digestibility of gross energy and minerals. The impact of phytase on AA digestibility is possibly dependent on diet composition, phytate and phytase sources and concentrations, and pig maturity; however, further research is needed to confirm this.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in feed phosphates are increased by microbial phytase when fed to growing pigs. Monocalcium phosphate (MCP), monosodium phosphate (MSP), and magnesium phosphate (MgP) from volcanic deposits were used in the experiment. Three corn-soybean meal based diets that contained 0, 500, or 4,000 units of microbial phytase (FTU), but no feed phosphates, were formulated. Nine additional diets were formulated by adding each of the three feed phosphates to the three basal diets. A P-free diet was also formulated to estimate the basal endogenous loss of P, and therefore, 13 diets were used in the experiment. A total of 117 growing barrows (initial body weight: 15.56 ± 1.68 kg) were allotted to the 13 diets with 9 pigs per diet. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates equipped with a feeder and a nipple drinker. Installation of a screen floor under the slatted floor allowed for collection of feces. Diets were fed for 10 d, with the initial 5 d being a period of adaptation to the diet followed by a collection period of 4 d. During the experiment, pigs were fed equal amounts of feed twice daily at 0800 and 1600 h. Results indicated that the ATTD and STTD of P in all diets increased with the inclusion of 500 or 4,000 FTU, but the ATTD and STTD of P in the feed phosphates were not affected by the inclusion of phytase. This indicates that the increases in ATTD and STTD of P that were observed in the mixed diets when phytase was used were due to the release of P from phytate in corn and soybean meal and not from an increase in digestibility of P in feed phosphates. However, MgP had a lower (P 0.05) ATTD and STTD of P than MCP and MSP. In conclusion, microbial phytase does not increase the digestibility of P in MCP, MSP, or MGP, but the digestibility of P in MgP is less than in MCP and MSP.Microbial phytase increases the digestibility by pigs of phytate-bound P in feed ingredients of plant origin, but digestible P can also be increased in diets by the addition of feed phosphates due to their high digestibility of P and lack of phytate. However, it is possible that the phytate from plant ingredients complexes with P from feed phosphates, resulting in a lower digestibility of P, but research to address this possibility has not been reported. Therefore, the hypothesis was that phytase can increase the digestibility of P in feed phosphates fed to pigs. Monocalcium phosphate (MCP), monosodium phosphate (MSP), and magnesium phosphate (MgP) were the three feed phosphates used in the experiment and the three ingredients were included in corn-soybean meal based diets. Results indicated that the inclusion of phytase increased the digestibility of P in the diets, but there was no indication that phytase affected the digestibility of P from any of the three feed phosphates, which indicates that the increase in digestibility of P likely was due to the release of P from plant ingredients in the diets. However, the digestibility of P was lower in MgP compared with MCP and MSP.

The aims of this experiment were (1) to compare the effects of a soybean meal with an enzymatic treatment (ESBM) to reduce the concentration of antinutritional factors versus a standard soybean meal (SBM) on foregut and small intestine digestion in weaned dairy calves and (2) to estimate the endogenous losses of crude protein (CP) in the small intestine. Our hypothesis was that a diet containing ESBM instead of SBM would improve ruminal and small intestine digestion and absorption of nutrients. A T-cannula was placed in the duodenum, and a second T-cannula was installed in the distal ileum of 12 Holstein calves at approximately 3 wk of age. Calves were weaned on d 42, and on d 50 they were assigned randomly to a quadruplicated 3 × 3 Latin square with 10-d periods. Digesta samples were collected on d 7 and 8 from the ileum and d 9 and 10 from the duodenum. The diets were fed for ad libitum intake and consisted of a calf starter (CS) of 20% CP with SBM as the main source of protein (CTRL), and an isonitrogenous CS with an ESBM instead of SBM (ENZT). A third diet with a low content of CP (10%) and no soy protein was fed to estimate endogenous N losses and digestibilities of test ingredients. Flows and digestibilities of nutrients were compared between CTRL and ENZT and their test ingredients (SBM vs. ESBM, respectively). Duodenal net flows of CP and total AA as well as ruminal microbial protein synthesis per kilogram of digested CP were greater, and flow of nonprotein N and CP true (corrected by endogenous and microbial flows) foregut digestibility were lower with ENZT than CTRL. The apparent small intestine digestibilities of CP and total AA were greater for ESBM than SBM, but there were no differences between the CTRL and ENZT diets. We observed no differences in digestibilities at the duodenum or ileum of starch or NDF, but true small intestine digestibilities of CP and all AA were greater with ENZT than CTRL. Total endogenous protein losses in the small intestine estimated from calves fed the low-CP with no soy protein diet were 37 ± 1.5 g of CP and 29 ± 1.4 g of AA/kg of DMI. These values may be considered the basal endogenous losses as they are similar to values obtained with the regression method, which estimates N losses when dietary N is null. Our results indicated that the inclusion of an ESBM improved the efficiency of ruminal microbial protein synthesis per digested kilogram of organic matter and CP, and increased CP and AA absorption in the small intestine despite a greater proportion of undigested dietary protein entering the duodenum.

The objective of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that increasing dietary phytase reduces basal endogenous loss of Ca and increases P balance in pigs. Seventy barrows (initial body weight: 17.66 ± 1.69 kg) were allotted to seven Ca-free diets using a randomized complete block design with two blocks and five pigs per diet in each block. All diets were based on corn, potato protein concentrate, and full-fat rice bran. A positive control (PC) diet was formulated to contain P at the requirement for standardized total tract digestible (STTD) P by 11 to 25 kg pigs. Six negative control (NC) diets were formulated by reducing the provision of digestible P by 0.15% and adding 0, 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, or 4,000 phytase units/kg diet. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates that allowed for total, but separate, collection of urine and feces. Daily feed allowance was 3.0 times the maintenance requirement for metabolizable energy and was divided into two equal meals. Diets were fed for 12 d with the first 5 d considered the adaptation period. Urine collections started on day 6 in the morning and ceased on day 10 in the morning. Fecal markers were also included in the morning meals on day 6 and day 10 and feces were collected according to the marker-to-marker procedure. Results indicated that the apparent total tract digestibility of dry matter was not affected by dietary P or phytase levels. The basal endogenous loss of Ca was not affected by dietary P, but exponentially decreased (P = 0.030) as phytase level increased in the diets. Phosphorus retention (g/d) and standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus were greater (P0.05) in pigs fed the PC diet compared with pigs fed the NC diet with no phytase. The STTD of P exponentially (P0.001) increased as phytase level increased in the diets, but because of the lack of Ca, retention of P (% of absorbed) linearly decreased (P = 0.006) as phytase increased. In conclusion, basal endogenous loss of Ca decreased as dietary phytase increased demonstrating that endogenous Ca can be bound to phytate in the intestinal tract of pigs. However, STTD of P increased as phytase level in the diets increased.Phytate in plant-based ingredients limits the amount of phosphorus available for absorption and can form indigestible complexes with endogenous calcium. However, breakdown of the phytate molecule by phytase increases digestibility of phosphorus and may also reduce endogenous loss of calcium. Therefore, the objective of this experiment was to test the hypothesis that level of phytase influences the utilization of phosphorus and basal endogenous loss of calcium in growing pigs fed calcium-free diets. Results demonstrated that total tract digestibility of phosphorus increased as phytase increased in the diets, but not all of the absorbed P was retained in the pigs due to a lack of calcium. Dietary concentration of phosphorus did not affect basal endogenous loss of calcium, but increasing concentrations of microbial phytase reduced basal endogenous loss of calcium. These results demonstrate that some endogenous calcium is bound to phytate, but including microbial phytase in diets helps release this calcium and therefore reduce endogenous loss of calcium.

Phosphorus (P) is a macro mineral needed for bone mineralization and cell membrane structure and P is also involved in several fundamental pathways of metabolism in the body. Because of the low concentration and digestibility of P in the plant ingredients that are the main components of diets for poultry and pigs, feed phosphates are usually included in diets in addition to the P contributed by plant ingredients. The most widely used feed phosphates in poultry and swine diets are dicalcium phosphate (DCP) and monocalcium phosphate (MCP), but tricalcium phosphate (TCP), monosodium phosphate (MSP), and magnesium phosphate (MgP) may be used as well. Because feed phosphates are mostly produced from rock phosphate, feed phosphates have impurities that contain other minerals other than P. Concentrations of P in feed phosphates range from 14.8% (MgP) to 25.7% (MSP). The standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P in pigs ranges from 71% (TCP) to 95% (MSP). The STTD of Ca and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of P and Ca in feed phosphates fed to pigs and poultry have been determined only in a few experiments. Available data indicate that the STTD of Ca and SID of P in MCP are greater than in DCP in both poultry and pigs, but the SID of Ca is similar between DCP and MCP fed to broilers. Information on mineral concentrations and digestibility values in feed phosphates is needed in diet formulation for pigs and poultry, but if diets are formulated to contain equal concentrations of digestible P and Ca, it is unlikely that animal performance will be impacted by the source of feed phosphates used in the diet.

Restrictions on antibiotic growth promoters have prompted livestock producers to use alternative growth promoters, and dietary copper (Cu) supplementation is currently being widely used in pig production. However, elevated doses of dietary Cu constitute a risk for co-selection of antibiotic resistance and the risk may depend on the type of Cu-based feed additives being used. We here report the first controlled experiment investigating the impact of two contrasting Cu-based feed additives on the overall swine gut microbiome and antibiotic resistome. DNA was extracted from fecal samples (n = 96) collected at four time points during 116 days from 120 pigs allotted to three dietary treatments: control, divalent copper sulfate (CuSO4; 250 μg Cu g−1 feed), and monovalent copper oxide (Cu2O; 250 μg Cu g−1 feed). Bacterial community composition, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) were assessed, and bioavailable Cu ([Cu]bio) was determined using whole-cell bacterial bioreporters. Cu supplementation to feed increased total Cu concentrations ([Cu]total) and [Cu]bio in feces 8–10 fold and at least 670–1000 fold, respectively, but with no significant differences between the two Cu sources. The swine gut microbiome harbored highly abundant and diverse ARGs and MGEs irrespective of the treatments throughout the experiment. Microbiomes differed significantly between pig growth stages and tended to converge over time, but only minor changes in the bacterial community composition and resistome could be linked to Cu supplementation. A significant correlation between bacterial community composition (i.e., bacterial taxa present) and ARG prevalence patterns were observed by Procrustes analysis. Overall, results of the experiment did not provide evidence for Cu-induced co-selection of ARGs or MGEs even at a Cu concentration level exceeding the maximal permitted level for pig diets in the EU (25 to 150 μg Cu g−1 feed depending on pig age).

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that regardless of pig body weight (BW), increasing dietary phytase results in increased phytate degradation and improved digestibility of minerals, amino acids (AA), and gross energy (GE). Eighteen pigs were equipped with a T-cannula in the distal ileum and allotted to a triplicated 6 × 3 Youden square design with six diets and three collection periods of 7 d, for a total of nine replicate pigs per diet. This design was repeated four times to simulate four production phases, and there was a 7-d resting period before each collection phase started (BW at start of collections: 29.3, 53.6, 85.1, and 114.4 kg for phases 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively). Six corn-soybean meal diets were formulated by including 0, 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, or 4,000 phytase units/kg feed (FTU). The six diets were used throughout the experiment. Samples of feces and ileal digesta were collected in each period. Results indicated that regardless of pig BW, increasing inclusion of phytase increased (quadratic; P0.05) apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and most AA, increased apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of Ca, P, K, Mg (linear and quadratic; P0.05), and Na (linear; P0.05), but decreased (linear and quadratic; P0.05) AID and ATTD of GE. In all phases, ileal concentrations of inositol phosphate (IP) 6, IP5, IP4, and IP3 decreased (linear and quadratic; P0.05), whereas ileal inositol increased (linear and quadratic; P0.05) with increasing dietary phytase. However, as pig BW increased, AID of GE, CP, and AA increased (linear, P0.05), and the AID of a few AA (Met, Phe, Thr, Trp, Ala, Asp, Gly, and Ser) also increased quadratically (P0.05). The ATTD of GE, K, and Mg increased (linear and quadratic; P0.05), but ATTD of Ca and Na (linear; P0.05) and of P (linear and quadratic; P0.05) decreased as pig BW increased. Ileal IP6 and IP3 (linear and quadratic; P0.05) and ileal IP5 and IP4 (linear; P0.05) increased, whereas ileal inositol decreased (linear; P0.05) as pig BW increased. In conclusion, regardless of pig BW, increasing dietary phytase increased phytate degradation and inositol release in the small intestine, and consequently increased mineral and AA digestibility. Older pigs have reduced Ca, P, and Na digestibility, but increased K, Mg, AA, and GE digestibility compared with younger pigs. The efficiency of dietary phytase to degrade phytate appears to decrease as pigs get older.The influence of dietary phytase in pig nutrition is often investigated using pigs from 20 to 40 kg, but there are limited data to demonstrate that data obtained in young pigs can be extrapolated to pigs above 40 kg. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to determine effects of increasing phytase levels (0, 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 phytase units) on phytate breakdown and nutrient digestibility of pigs throughout four productive phases (25 to 50 kg, 50 to 75 kg, 75 to 100 kg, and 100 to 125 kg). Results indicated that regardless of pig body weight, the digestibility of macro-minerals and most amino acids increased with increasing dietary phytase because of increased phytate breakdown.

The objective was to test the hypothesis that supplementation of diets for gestating sows with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH-D3) or 1-hydroxycholecalciferol (1-OH-D3) affects serum biomarkers for bone and increases Ca and P balance and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), and the concentrations of digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) in diets without or with microbial phytase. Sixty multiparous sows were allotted to 1 of 6 diets. Diets were formulated using a 3 × 2 factorial with 3 inclusions of supplemental vitamin D metabolite (no metabolite, 25-OH-D3, or 1-OH-D3) and 2 inclusion levels of microbial phytase (0 or 1,000 units). Sows were housed individually in metabolism crates and feces and urine were collected quantitatively. Results indicated that there was no difference in the ATTD of dry matter (DM) and GE and concentration of DE among the 3 diets containing microbial phytase, but the ATTD of DM and GE and concentration of DE was greater (P 0.05) in diets containing 1-OH-D3 compared with the diet without a vitamin D metabolite if phytase was not used (interaction; P 0.05). In diets without microbial phytase, ME was greater in diets containing either one of the 2 vitamin D metabolites than in the diet without a vitamin D metabolite, but among diets with microbial phytase, the ME of the 1-OH-D3 diet was less than of the 25-OH-D3 diet (interaction; P 0.05). No effect of microbial phytase on concentrations of DE and ME was observed. There was no interaction between supplementation of microbial phytase and vitamin D metabolites for Ca and P balances, and regardless of metabolite supplementation, use of microbial phytase increased (P 0.05) the ATTD and retention of Ca and P. Regardless of dietary phytase, the ATTD and retention of Ca and P increased (P 0.05) for sows fed a diet containing one of the vitamin D metabolites compared with sows fed the diet without a vitamin D metabolite. Serum biomarkers for bone resorption or bone tissue synthesis were not affected by experimental diets. In conclusion, the ATTD of DM and GE, concentrations of DE and ME, and Ca and P balance in phytase-free diets fed to sows in late gestation were increased by supplementation with 1-OH-D3 or 25-OH-D3, but no differences between the 2 vitamin D metabolites were observed. Supplementation of diets with microbial phytase increased Ca and P balance, but did not affect DE and ME of diets.The role of vitamin D is to increase absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the gastrointestinal tract and maintain serum concentrations of calcium, but dietary vitamin D needs to be converted to an active form by 2-hydroxylation steps that take place in the liver and the kidneys. The conversion efficiency to active vitamin D may be increased if pre-hydroxylated metabolites rather than vitamin D are provided, which also increases calcium and phosphorus utilization. In a previous experiment it was also demonstrated that a vitamin D metabolite increases energy absorption in gestating sows. It is possible that use of a vitamin D metabolite and phytase have additive effects and the hypothesis, therefore, was that supplementation of a vitamin D metabolite increases calcium and phosphorus balance and energy digestibility in diets fed to gestating sows without or with microbial phytase. Results indicated that in diets without phytase, the 2 vitamin D metabolites increased energy concentration in diets by increasing apparent energy digestibility. There was no interaction between supplementation of phytase and vitamin D metabolites for calcium and phosphorus balances. Use of phytase and vitamin D metabolites increased calcium and phosphorus digestibility and retention.

The beneficial effect of elevated concentrations of copper (Cu) on growth performance of pigs has been already demonstrated; however, their mechanism of action is not fully discovered. The objective of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of including Cu from copper sulfate (CuSO4) or monovalent copper oxide (Cu2O) in the diet of growing pigs on oxidative stress, inflammation, gene abundance, and microbial modulation. We used 120 pigs with initial body weight (BW) of 11.5 ± 0.98 kg in 2 blocks of 60 pigs, 3 dietary treatments, 5 pigs per pen, and 4 replicate pens per treatment within each block for a total of 8 pens per treatment. Dietary treatments included the negative control (NC) diet containing 20 mg Cu/kg and 2 diets in which 250 mg Cu/kg from CuSO4 or Cu2O was added to the NC. On day 28, serum samples were collected from one pig per pen and this pig was then euthanized to obtain liver samples for the analysis of oxidative stress markers (Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde, MDA). Serum samples were analyzed for cytokines. Jejunum tissue and colon content were collected and used for transcriptomic analyses and microbial characterization, respectively. Results indicated that there were greater (P0.05) MDA levels in the liver of pigs fed the diet with 250 mg/kg CuSO4 than in pigs fed the other diets. The serum concentration of tumor necrosis factor-alpha was greater (P0.05) in pigs fed diets containing CuSO4 compared with pigs fed the NC diet or the diet with 250 mg Cu/kg from Cu2O. Pigs fed diets containing CuSO4 or Cu2O had a greater (P0.05) abundance of genes related to the intestinal barrier function and nutrient transport, but a lower (P0.05) abundance of pro-inflammatory genes compared with pigs fed the NC diet. Supplementing diets with CuSO4 or Cu2O also increased (P0.05) the abundance of Lachnospiraceae and Peptostreptococcaceae families and reduced (P0.05) the abundance of the Rikenellaceae family, Campylobacter, and Streptococcus genera in the colon of pigs. In conclusion, adding 250 mg/kg of Cu from CuSO4 or Cu2O regulates genes abundance in charge of the immune system and growth, and promotes changes in the intestinal microbiota; however, Cu2O induces less systemic oxidation and inflammation compared with CuSO4.Copper is a nonrenewable mineral resource that is essential for all biological organisms. After banning the antibiotics, copper has received considerable attention due to its antimicrobial properties that improve performance in animals when fed over the minimum requirement. The present study evaluated two sources of Cu (copper sulfate and monovalent copper oxide) compared with a nonsupplemented diet and the likely mechanism of action which leads to improved pig performance. Pigs fed high concentrations of copper sulfate showed increased liver oxidation and inflammatory indicators in the blood. Elevated concentrations of Cu improved intestinal epithelial barrier function, modulation of inflammatory responses, increased beneficial microbes, and reduced pathogens in the gut. Therefore, supplementation of high levels of Cu appears to be effective in promoting pig growth, but therapeutic doses of Cu sulfate increase the inflammatory response.

BACKGROUND: Pistachio nuts may be consumed as raw nuts or as roasted nuts. However, there is limited information about the protein quality of the nuts, and amino acid (AA) digestibility and protein quality have not been reported. Therefore, the objective of this research was to test the hypothesis that raw and roasted pistachio nuts have a digestible indispensable AA score (DIAAS) and a protein digestibility corrected AA score (PDCAAS) greater than 75, thereby qualifying them as a good source of protein. RESULTS: The standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of all indispensable AAs, except arginine and phenylalanine, was less in roasted pistachio nuts than in raw pistachio nuts (P

Our objective was to measure and compare apparent ileal digestibility, standard ileal digestibility, and true ileal digestibility of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA) in milk replacers (MR) containing all milk proteins (WPC) or with 50% of the CP provided by an enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESBM). A T-cannula was placed in the ileum of 9 Holstein calves (8 males and 1 freemartin female) at approximately 15 d of age. After 2 wk postsurgery, calves were randomly assigned to a 3 × 3 replicated Latin square with 5-d periods. Calves were fed twice daily at a rate of 2% (dry matter) of body weight (1.25 kg/d on average), reconstituted to 15% solids, and adjusted weekly. No starter was offered to minimize rumen development. Digesta samples were collected continuously during 12 h on d 4 and 5 of each period. Basal endogenous losses of AA and CP were estimated by feeding an N-free MR to each calf during 1 period. Total endogenous losses (basal + specific; ENDtotal) were estimated by multivariate regression of the chi-squared distances between digesta and reference protein AA profiles. Ileal digesta pH with the ESBM diet was lower than that with the WPC diet. According to the piecewise nonlinear model of pH fluctuation, digesta pH during ESBM decreased more slowly after feeding and reached its nadir later than with the WPC diet. Diet did not affect average daily gain, but calves on the ESBM diet showed a bigger increment of withers height and lower mean fecal scores. The basal endogenous losses of AA and CP were 13.9 ± 1.1 and 22.4 ± 1.1 g/kg of dry matter intake, respectively. The estimated ENDtotal of AA and CP was higher with ESBM than with WPC. Accordingly, apparent ileal digestibility and standard ileal digestibility of most AA, CP, and total AA were lower or tended to be lower with ESBM. However, true ileal digestibility did not differ between diets for CP and all AA except Ala and Ile, which were greater with WPC, and Arg, which tended to be greater with ESBM. In agreement with the estimated differences in ENDtotal, we found that flows of digesta DNA and crude mucin were greater with ESBM. Substitution of 50% of the protein from whey with enzymatically treated soybean meal did not affect major nutrient digestibility or calf growth and even improved fecal consistency. Adjusting digestibilities of CP and AA in MR by endogenous protein losses is crucial when comparing bioavailability of alternative proteins and milk proteins.

An experiment tested the hypothesis that isoquinoline alkaloids (IQ) in diets for weanling pigs formulated below amino acid (AA) requirements improves intestinal health and maintains growth performance of pigs compared with pigs fed a diet formulated at AA requirements. Two-hundred weanling pigs (6.11 ± 0.61 kg) were allotted to 4 dietary treatments with 5 pigs per pen and 10 pens per treatment for a 27 d, 2-phase experiment. Diets were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial with AA at or 10% below requirements and with IQ at 0 or 120 mg/kg. Growth performance was calculated and plasma (d 14 and 27) and tissue samples (d 27) were collected. Data were analyzed with Proc MIXED of SAS using AA level, IQ inclusion, and the interaction as main effects. Pigs fed diets with IQ tended to have greater (P < 0.10) ADFI, whereas G:F was reduced if dietary AA were reduced (P < 0.05; Table 1). If AA were at requirements, lamina propria thickness in the jejunum was not affected by IQ inclusion, but if AA were below requirements, IQ decreased lamina propria thickness (interaction, P < 0.05). Villus height also tended to increase with dietary IQ (P < 0.10). Adding IQ to the diet that met AA requirements resulted in decreased plasma interleukin 4 and 10 on d 14; however, if IQ was in the reduced AA diet, the opposite was true (interaction, P < 0.05). If AA were below requirements, IQ tended to increase occludin in the jejunal mucosa, whereas if AA were at requirements, IQ tended to reduce occludin (interaction, P < 0.10). On d 26, reducing AA in the diet reduced (P < 0.05) plasma albumin. In conclusion, if AA are provided below the requirement, dietary IQ modulates systemic inflammation and improves intestinal function of weanling pigs.

The objective was to test the hypothesis that an increasing dose of a novel thermostable 6-phytase that was derived from E. coli and expressed in a Pichia Pastoris yeast (Superphy; Hanley International, LLC, Belmont, MA) increases apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of minerals and energy by pigs. Forty-eight barrows (initial weight: 22.61 kg) were housed in metabolism crates and fed 6 diets based on corn and soybean meal. The positive control (PC) diet contained P at the requirement. The negative control (NC) diet contained no feed phosphate, but contained 0, 250, 500, 1,000, or 2,000 phytase unit/kg. Feces were collected for 4 d after 5 d of adaptation. Dried and ground fecal samples were analyzed for dry matter, energy, Ca, P and other minerals. Data were analyzed using a model that included diet as fixed variable and contrast statements were used to compare PC and NC diets and to demonstrate linear and quadratic effects of phytase. Results indicated that ATTD of dry matter and energy and concentration of digestible energy in NC without phytase were greater (P < 0.05) than in PC, but ATTD of ash, K, Mg, Na, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn was not different between the 2 diets. There was no effect of phytase on ATTD of dry matter and energy or on digestible energy in diets. As dietary phytase increased, ATTD of ash and Mg increased (linear, P < 0.05) and ATTD of Ca and the standardized total tract digestibility (STTD) of P also increased (quadratic, P < 0.05), but ATTD of K, Na, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn was not affected by phytase. In conclusion, the novel enhanced E. Coli based phytase increased ATTD of Ca, P, and Mg and STTD of P if included in a diet containing Ca and P below requirements.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that increasing levels of phytase increases apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients in diets fed to young pigs. A negative control (NC) diet that was deficient (compared with NRC recommendation) in total Ca (-0.15%), standardized total tract digestible P (-0.16%), net energy (-33 kcal/kg), and standardized ileal digestible amino acids (average -0.02% unit) was formulated. Five additional diets were formulated by adding 250, 500, 1,000, 2,000 or 4,000 phytase units per kg of a novel consensus bacterial 6-phytase variant (PhyG) to the NC diet. All diets were based on corn, soybean meal, and canola meal. Eighteen ileal-cannulated pigs (17.81 ± 1.71 kg) were allotted to a 6 × 3 incomplete Latin square design with 6 diets and 3 periods. There were 3 pigs per diet in each period; therefore, there were nine replicate pigs per diet. Data were analyzed using the Mixed Procedure of SAS with diet as the fixed effect whereas pig and period were considered random effects. Linear and quadratic effects of PhyG on nutrient digestibility were determined using polynomial contrast statements. Linear (P < 0.01) and quadratic (P < 0.05) increases in AID of all individual amino acids (except Arg) were observed as dietary concentrations of PhyG increased (Table 1). Likewise, an increase (linear, P < 0.01; quadratic, P < 0.05) in ATTD of minerals in diets was observed as the concentration of PhyG increased in diets. Increasing levels of PhyG in diets also increased (linear, P < 0.05) ATTD of gross energy. In conclusion, increasing levels of the novel phytase (PhyG) effectively increased ileal and total tract digestibility of nutrients by pigs.

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that probiotic Bacillus toyonensis M15750 improve the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of energy and nutrients when included in diets fed by weanling pigs. A control diet was formulated based on corn, soybean-meal, and distillers dried grains with solubles and a second diet was formulated by supplementing the probiotic Bacillus toyonensis M15750 (1 × 109 cfu/kg feed) to the control diet. Titanium dioxide (0.50 %) was added to the diets as an indigestible marker. Sixteen weanling barrows (10.7 ± 0.7 kg) that had a T-cannula in the distal ileum were allotted to the two diets with 8 replicate pigs per diet in a randomized complete block design with body weight being the blocking factor. Pigs were adapted to the diets and to the metabolism crates for 7 days, urine and fecal materials were collected during the following 4 days according to standard procedures using the marker-to-marker approach, whereas ileal digesta were collected for 8 h during the following 2 days. The AID and ATTD of energy and nutrients were calculated for each diet. The AID of dry matter and gross energy was greater (P < 0.05) and the AID of starch tended to be greater (P = 0.05) in the diet supplemented with the probiotic Bacillus toyonensis M15750 compared with the control diet (Table 1). However, no differences were observed for the ATTD of energy or nutrients between the 2 diets, which indicates that the increased digestibility in the small intestine of pigs fed the diet supplemented with Bacillus toyonensis M15750 was offset by a reduction in hindgut fermentation. These results indicate that inclusion of probiotic Bacillus toyonensis M15750 in diets for weanling pigs have the potential to improve the AID of dry matter, gross energy and starch.