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ADAM software is a stochastic simulation tool intended to model a variety of selective breeding schemes for animals and plants. ADAM can be used to generate genetic data to test statistical tools and the implemented algorithms can evaluate breeding schemes by tracing genetic change under different selective breeding scenarios. In practice, crossbreeding has been used extensively in beef cattle, pig, and poultry production systems, and the use of crossbreeding isincreasing in dairy cattle breeding system due to changes in the dairy market. The aim of this paper was to present a new crossbreeding feature of the ADAM software. The software was updated to include multiple purebred populations and crossbred populations in animals with different genetic backgrounds considering both additive and dominance effects. Our simulated results showed that, by using the new features in ADAM, breeding organizations can optimizetheir design of crossbreeding schemes and, thereby, optimize profitability.

National and international across-population selection is often recommended and fairly common in the current breeding practice of dairy cattle, with the primary aims to increase genetic gain and genetic variability. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the strategy of truncation selection of sires across populations [i.e., competitive gene flow strategy (CGF)] may not necessarily maximize genetic gain in the long term in the presence of genotype-by-environment interaction (G×E). Two alternative strategies used to be compared with CGF were forced gene flow (FGF) strategies, with 10 or 50% of domestic dams forced to be mated with foreign sires (FGF10%, FGF50%). Two equal-size populations (Ndams = 1,000) that were selected for the same breeding goal trait (h2 = 0.3) under G×E correlation (rg) of either 0.9 or 0.8 were simulated to test these 3 different strategies. Each population first experienced either 5 or 20 differentiation generations (Gd), then 15 migration generations. Discrete generations were simulated for simplicity. Each population performed a within-population conventional breeding program during differentiation generations and the 3 across-population sire selection strategies based on joint genomic prediction during migration generations. The 4 Gd_rg combinations defined 4 different levels of differentiation degree between the 2 populations at the start of migration. The true rate of inbreeding over the last 10 migration generations in each scenario was constrained at 0.01 to provide a fair basis for comparison of genetic gain across scenarios. Results showed that CGF maximized the genetic gain after 15 migration generations in 5_0.9 combination only, the case of the lowest differentiation degree, with a superiority of 0.4% (0.04 genetic SD units) over the suboptimal strategy. While in 5_0.8, 20_0.9, and 20_0.8 combinations, 2 FGF strategies had a superiority in genetic gain of 2.3 to 12.5% (0.21–1.07 genetic SD units) over CGF after 15 migration generations, especially FGF50%. The superiority of FGF strategies over CGF was that they alleviated inbreeding, introduced new genetic variance in the early migration period, and improved accuracy in the entire migration period. Therefore, we concluded that CGF does not necessarily maximize the genetic gain of across-population genomic breeding programs given moderate G×E. The across-population selection strategy remains to be optimized to maximize genetic gain.

Background Several studies have found that the growth rate of a pig is influenced by the genetics of the group members (indirect genetic effects). Accounting for these indirect genetic effects in a selection program may increase genetic progress for growth rate. However, indirect genetic effects are small and difficult to predict accurately. Genomic information may increase the ability to predict indirect genetic effects. Thus, the objective of this study was to test whether including indirect genetic effects in the animal model increases the predictive performance when genetic effects are predicted with genomic relationships. In total, 11,255 pigs were phenotyped for average daily gain between 30 and 94 kg, and 10,995 of these pigs were genotyped. Two relationship matrices were used: a numerator relationship matrix ($${\mathbf{A}}$$ A ) and a combined pedigree and genomic relationship matrix ($${\mathbf{H}}$$ H ); and two different animal models were used: an animal model with only direct genetic effects and an animal model with both direct and indirect genetic effects. The predictive performance of the models was defined as the Pearson correlation between corrected phenotypes and predicted genetic levels. The predicted genetic level of a pig was either its direct genetic effect or the sum of its direct genetic effect and the indirect genetic effects of its group members (total genetic effect). Results The highest predictive performance was achieved when total genetic effects were predicted with genomic information (21.2 vs. 14.7%). In general, the predictive performance was greater for total genetic effects than for direct genetic effects (0.1 to 0.5% greater; not statistically significant). Both types of genetic effects had greater predictive performance when they were predicted with $${\mathbf{H}}$$ H rather than $${\mathbf{A}}$$ A (5.9 to 6.3%). The difference between predictive performances of total genetic effects and direct genetic effects was smaller when $${\mathbf{H}}$$ H was used rather than $${\mathbf{A}}$$ A . Conclusions This study provides evidence that: (1) corrected phenotypes are better predicted with total genetic effects than with direct genetic effects only; (2) both direct genetic effects and indirect genetic effects are better predicted with $${\mathbf{H}}$$ H than $${\mathbf{A}}$$ A ; (3) using $${\mathbf{H}}$$ H rather than $${\mathbf{A}}$$ A primarily improves the predictive performance of direct genetic effects.

The Jutland Horse is an original Danish horse breed and is regarded as Denmark’s national draft horse. It was previously used as a draught horse in the farming industry. The studbook dates back to ...

Background Physical removal of individuals from groups causes reductions in group sizes and changes in group composition, which may affect the predictive ability of estimates of indirect genetic effects of animals on phenotypes of group mates. We hypothesized that including indirect genetic effects of culled animals and of animals without phenotypes in the analysis affects estimates of genetic parameters, improves predictive ability, and reduces bias of predicted breeding values. We tested this by applying different editing procedures, i.e. omission of individuals or groups from the data, and genetic models, i.e. a classical and an indirect genetic model (IGM) without or with weighting of indirect genetic effects based on the relative proportion of time spent in the pen or space allowance. Data consisted of average daily gain for 123,567 pigs in 11,111 groups, from which 3% of individuals in 25% of groups were prematurely removed from the group. Results The estimate of total heritability was higher (0.29 to 0.34) than that of direct heritability (0.23 to 0.25) regardless of the editing procedures and IGM used. Omission of individuals or groups from the data reduced the predictive ability of estimates of indirect genetic effects by 8 to 46%, and the predictive ability of estimates of the combined direct and indirect genetic effects by up to 4%. Omission of full groups introduced bias in predicted breeding values. Weighting of indirect genetic effects reduced the predictive ability of their estimates by at least 19% and of the estimates of the combined direct and indirect genetic effects by 1%. Conclusions We identified significant indirect genetic effects for growth in pigs. Culled animals should neither be removed from the data nor accounted for by weighting their indirect genetic effects in the model based on the relative proportion of time spent in the pen or space allowance, because it will reduce predictive ability and increase bias of predicted breeding values. Information on culled animals is important for prediction of indirect genetic effects and must be accounted for in IGM analyses by including fixed regressions based on relative time spent within the pen or relative space allowance.

Lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) is the most widely use biological pest control agent to delouse sea lice on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). From 2012 to 2017, the production of lumpfish has increased from less than two million individuals to more than 30 million individuals in Norway alone. To meet the increasing market demand for lumpfish and to ensure sustainable production in the future, we need to domesticate the wild stocks and establish a breeding program for lumpfish. One of the most important traits in lumpfish, the genetic property for uniformity of body weight was investigated. In 2015, wild broodstock of lumpfish were collected from Southern and Northern coastal regions of Norway. A total of 68 full-sib families were produced and 7588 lumpfish juvenile were measured for body weight at tagging. A sire-dam double hierarchical generalized linear model was used to estimate the genetic parameters for body weight and its uniformity. Body weight was transformed by standardized and log scales. The heritabilities for uniformity of body weight in both scales, were low at 0.014 and 0.021 for the standardized and log scales, respectively. However, the genetic coefficient of variation for uniformity were relatively high, 45.8% and 63.5% (for standardized and log transformation), indicating that uniformity of body weight for lumpfish are substantially under genetic control. The genetic correlation between body weight and its uniformity was estimated. For the standardized transformation, the genetic correlation was −0.055 ± 0.252 (close to zero), and for the log transformation, the estimate was −0.813 ± 0.114. Both genetic correlations suggest that it is possible to simultaneously select for body weight and uniformity of body weight without a trade-off in genetic gain. In conclusion, there is substantial genetic variation for uniformity of body weight in lumpfish and the potential to select on this trait is promising.

Background In settings with social interactions, the phenotype of an individual is affected by the direct genetic effect (DGE) of the individual itself and by indirect genetic effects (IGE) of its group mates. In the presence of IGE, heritable variance and response to selection depend on size of the interaction group (group size), which can be modelled via a ‘dilution’ parameter (d) that measures the magnitude of IGE as a function of group size. However, little is known about the estimability of d and the precision of its estimate. Our aim was to investigate how precisely d can be estimated and what determines this precision. Methods We simulated data with different group sizes and estimated d using a mixed model that included IGE and d. Schemes included various average group sizes (4, 6, and 8), variation in group size (coefficient of variation (CV) ranging from 0.125 to 1.010), and three values of d (0, 0.5, and 1). A design in which individuals were randomly allocated to groups was used for all schemes and a design with two families per group was used for some schemes. Parameters were estimated using restricted maximum likelihood (REML). Bias and precision of estimates were used to assess their statistical quality. Results The dilution parameter of IGE can be estimated for simulated data with variation in group size. For all schemes, the length of confidence intervals ranged from 0.114 to 0.927 for d, from 0.149 to 0.198 for variance of DGE, from 0.011 to 0.086 for variance of IGE, and from 0.310 to 0.557 for genetic correlation between DGE and IGE. To estimate d, schemes with groups composed of two families performed slightly better than schemes with randomly composed groups. Conclusions Dilution of IGE was estimable, and in general its estimation was more precise when CV of group size was larger. All estimated parameters were unbiased. Estimation of dilution of IGE allows the contribution of direct and indirect variance components to heritable variance to be quantified in relation to group size and, thus, it could improve prediction of the expected response to selection in environments with group sizes that differ from the average size. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12711-019-0466-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

International audience; AbstractBackgroundAverage daily gain (ADG) in pigs is affected by the so-called social (or indirect) genetic effects (SGE). However, SGE may differ between sexes because boars grow faster than gilts and their social behaviours differ. We hypothesized that direct genetic effects (DGE) and SGE for ADG in pigs differ between boars and gilts and that accounting for these differences will improve the predictive ability of a social genetic effects model (SGM). Our data consisted of ADG from 30 to 94 kg for 32,212 uncastrated males (boars) and 48,252 gilts that were raised in sex-specific pens. Data were analyzed using a univariate model with sex as a fixed effect and a bivariate model with ADG in boars and gilts as separate traits using both a classical animal model (CM) and a SGM.ResultsWith the univariate model, the heritability for ADG was 0.22 ± 0.01 for the CM, while the estimate of the total heritable variance (T2) was 0.23 ± 0.01 with the SGM. With the bivariate model, the genetic variance for SGE was higher for boars (13.8 ± 5.8) than for gilts (9.3 ± 3.9). For the bivariate model, T2 was 0.32 ± 0.02 for boars and 0.27 ± 0.01 for gilts. Estimates of the genetic correlations between DGE (0.88 ± 0.02) and SGE (0.30 ± 0.30) for boars versus gilts indicated that ADG in boars and gilts are different traits. Moreover, the estimate of the genetic correlation between DGE and SGE indicated presence of genetic effects of competition among gilts but not among boars. Compared to a CM, the univariate SGM improved predictive ability significantly only for gilts and the bivariate SGM improved predictive ability significantly for both boars and gilts.ConclusionsWe found significant genetic variances of SGE for ADG. The covariance between DGE and SGE was much more negative for gilts than for boars when applying the bivariate model. Because the estimate of the genetic correlation for ADG between gilts and boars differed significantly from 1 and the predictive ability for boars and gilts was improved significantly with the bivariate model, we recommend the use of a bivariate model to estimate both SGE and DGE for ADG in pigs.

Generating breeding programmes that effectively improve farmed fish performance across multiple environments and make fish more uniform within production environments would aid farmers to produce food under diverse environments. We review genotype-by-environment interaction leading to re-ranking of genotypes across environments, that is non-unity genetic correlation between traits measured in different environments, and micro-environmental sensitivity leading to a change in environmental variance of a trait. A quantitative review across 38 species showed that (i) genotype-by-environment interaction studies are lacking for many economically important traits. (ii) Re-ranking is moderate for growth (average genetic correlation = 0.72) and survival (average genetic correlation = 0.54). Significant re-ranking is of concern because selection in a nucleus leads to lower genetic responses in commercial environments compared to a case when re-ranking does not exist. (iii) Re-ranking is weak for age-at-sexual-maturity and fish appearance (average genetic correlation = 0.86), implying that genetic improvement in one environment is expected to be effective in the other environments. Future research should provide guidelines for how to account for genotype-by-environment interaction when collecting data, estimating breeding values and optimising the structure of the breeding programme. (iv) Coefficient of genetic variation for sensitivity against unknown micro-environmental factors within a single environment for body weight is high. Hence, genetic improvement towards less sensitive fish, resulting in more uniform production, is possible, but a large number of relatives with phenotypes is needed for obtaining moderate accuracy of selection. This review elucidates needs for further research on genotype-by-environment interaction and micro-environmental sensitivity in economically important traits and species.

The aims of this study were to examine fin erosion caused by social interactions between Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) juveniles, and to evaluate the repeatability of recorded fin length using digital image analysis (DIA). Fin length of 2100 juvenile Atlantic cod was analysed using DIA, during a 6 weeks experiment. The lengths of the three dorsal fins and the caudal fin were measured by three different assessors (M, K, B) three times during the experiment. Repeatability was based on a sub set of data from 42 randomly chosen fish. Assessor M measured the length of the fins of the 42 fish three times (M1, M2, M3). M1 and M2 were done on the same day, while M3 was conducted 2 weeks later. Assessor K measured two times with a 2-year interval, and assessor B measured the fin length only once. The correlations between replicated measurements within assessor were highest for assessor M measured on the same day indicating an effect of memory. Repeatability of fin length ranged from 0.57 to 0.73 for the four fins. Social interaction with respect to fin erosion was studied using data on the four fins from all 2100 fish. ‘Relative fin length’ (fin length/total body length × 100) was calculated to assess fin erosion. Results indicated that all four fins were eroded due to social interactions, but the caudal fin was most severely eroded. In conclusion, DIA can be used to measured fin length but the method could be improved by using chromatic pictures.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is threefold: first, to assess how concerned Norwegians are about fish welfare; second, to investigate Norwegians’ willingness to pay for salmon filet made from welfare-assured farmed fish with high levels of welfare; and third, to examine Norwegian opinions about the appropriate way to pay for better welfare standards in fish production. Design/methodology/approach – On the basis of two focus group sessions, a survey questionnaire was developed and distributed to a representative sample of 2,147 Norwegian households via e-mail. Findings – Results showed that the Norwegian public is concerned about fish welfare and is willing to pay a price premium for products made from welfare-assured fish. Norwegian consumers do not, however, want to be the only ones paying for fish welfare, as the main responsibility for fish welfare lies with producers and the Government. Research limitations/implications – In this study willingness to pay is measured using a hypothetical choice experiment. Values people express as citizens, however, may not accurately predict true consumer behaviour. This is generally referred to as “citizen-consumer duality” and may have affected the results. Practical implications – The study shows that there is a national market for welfare-assured fish products, but education initiatives focusing on fish farming and fish welfare issues would further influence the attitudes and purchasing habits of Norwegian consumers. Originality/value – Although concern about animal welfare is growing in the western world, very little attention has been given to the welfare of fish. This paper aims to make up for this by presenting a study of how Norwegians view the welfare of farmed salmon.

Ordinal threshold (OTH) models are commonly used for analysis of categorical data with logically ordered discrete response variables of a fixed number of classes, which follows a multinomial distribution. In this study, data from a natural field outbreak of francisellosis caused by the bacterium Francisella noatunensis in farmed Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) from the national Norwegian cod breeding program was analyzed. Mortality was recorded for a period of 81 days from the first day of the disease outbreak. Overall mortality at the end of the recording period was 24%. Surviving fish were dissected and infection statuses of the survivors were recorded. Based on this, disease resistance was scored in three distinct ordered categories; dead (1), alive but infected (2), and alive and uninfected (3). The data comprised of 2370 individuals from 176 families. The few fish that were alive and categorized as uninfected at the end of the test (n = 82) were confirmed to be pathogen free by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and lack of growth of F. noatunensis from head kidney. The data were analyzed using an OTH with three different categories and predictive ability of this model was compared with a binary threshold (BTH) model (dead/alive) and a longitudinal survival score (SS) model for time-until-death. The estimated underlying heritability for liability to francisellosis was moderate to low for BTH (0.17 ± 0.08), OTH (0.14 ± 0.07) and SS (0.10 ± 0.05). Pearson correlation coefficients between mid-parent estimated breeding values (EBV's) for the different models were all close to unity. Predictive ability of the models, measured as square root of Pearson correlations, between mid-parent EBV's from two independent sub-sets of the data, indicated that the highest accuracy of family selection would be obtained with the OTH (0.73) followed by SS (0.72) and BTH (0.70). In conclusion, splitting survivors into subclasses, depending on infection status, did add additional information to the genetic evaluation. Hence, it is recommended to discriminate between infection statuses among survivors in genetic evaluation of francisellosis survival data.

The aim of this study was to investigate whether observed time-until-death of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) juveniles in separate challenge tests with Vibrio anguillarum (causes vibriosis) and nodavirus [causes viral nervous necrosis (VNN)] are due to differences in susceptibility (whether at risk or not) or increased endurance (individual hazard, given that the animal is susceptible) using a cure mixture (CURE) model with Gibbs sampling. Observed time-until-death, prepared as sequential binary records, were analyzed with the CURE model and results were compared with cross-sectional threshold (SIMPLE) and an ordinary longitudinal survival score (NAIVE) model (i.e., assuming that all animals are susceptible). Overall mortality at the end of the test was 86 and 71% for vibriosis and VNN, respectively. But the CURE model estimated 92 and 82% of the population to be susceptible to vibriosis and VNN, respectively. Hence, a substantial fraction among the survivors were considered to be susceptible but with high endurance. The underlying heritability of susceptibility was moderate for vibriosis (0.33) and extremely high for VNN (0.91), somewhat greater compared with classical SIMPLE model (0.19 and 0.76 for vibriosis and VNN, respectively), analyzing end survival as a cross-sectional binary trait. Estimates of the underlying heritability were low for single test-day scores of both endurance (0.02 and 0.15 for vibriosis and VNN, respectively) in the CURE model and for the NAIVE model (0.02 and 0.18 for vibriosis and VNN, respectively). Based on the CURE model, the genetic correlation between susceptibility and endurance was low to moderately positive and significantly different from unity (P < 0.01) for both vibriosis (0.13) and VNN (0.47). Estimated breeding values from the SIMPLE and NAIVE models showed moderate to high correlations (0.41 to 0.96) with EBV for susceptibility and endurance in the CURE model. The analyses indicate that susceptibility and endurance are apparently distinct genetic traits. Still, the genetic variation estimated in the SIMPLE and NAIVE models seems to a large extent to be controlled by susceptibility and an efficient genetic selection for reduced susceptibility to vibriosis and VNN is therefore likely feasible even when using classical (noncure) models. Earlier termination of the challenge test or back truncation of survival data is not recommended as this likely shifts the focus of selection towards endurance rather than susceptibility.

Concerns have been voiced about the ethical implications of patenting practices in the field of biotechnology. Some of these have also been incorporated into regulation, such as the European Commission Directive 98/44 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions. However, the incorporation of ethically based restrictions into patent legislation has not had the effect of satisfying all concerns. In this article, we will systematically compare the richness of ethical concerns surrounding biotech patenting, with the limited scope of ethical concerns actually addressed in the patent system. As sources of our analyses we will use literature and document studies and a survey with important stakeholders and experts related to Norwegian patenting in the aquacultural biotechnology sector. We will structure the analyses with an ethical matrix, developed for this purpose. Showing the misalignment of the discussions within and outside the patent system, we suggest that an important reason for the ethical controversy still surrounding patenting is that ethical questions keep being framed in a narrow way within the system. Until a richer set of ethical considerations is addressed head-on within the patent system, the patent system will continue to evoke academic and interest group criticism, potentially contributing to a legitimacy crisis of the whole system.

There is a growing concern about the welfare of farmed fish. Current breeding programs typically focus on profitability through emphasizing fast growth of the fish. This research, however, finds that a representative sample of Norwegian households are willing to pay an increased tax for farmed Atlantic salmon that is selected for traits related to fish welfare. In an Internet survey, a random and representative sample of Norwegian households were asked to choose among breeding programs for farmed Atlantic salmon that differed with regards to costs and the following four traits related to fish welfare; frequency of deformities (Deform), frequencies of injuries (Injur), resistance to Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) (Lice) and resistance to diseases (Health). The survey participants were given six different choice sets, and in each they chose one of three alternative salmon breeding programs. Two of the alternative breeding programs would give improvements in at least one of the trait attributes and would result in an earmarked tax per household per year. The third alternative was the status quo option, i.e. a zero earmarked tax with focus only on growth enhancing traits and profitability in breeding programs. Based on the estimation results of random parameter logit models mean willingness to pay (WTP) was estimated for all households and for the subsample of households purchasing farmed salmon. The average WTP was higher for the subsample that purchases farmed salmon compared to the full sample. For households that purchase farmed salmon, the average WTP in terms of an earmarked tax for all attributes were significant and highest for Lice (1034 NOK/yr), followed by Health (749 NOK/yr). The WTP for Deform (282 NOK/yr) and Injur (256 NOK) were nearly the same. For the full sample of household, the average WTP was significantly different from zero at the 5% level only for Health (613.1 NOK/yr) and Lice (951.2 NOK/yr). This study provides evidence that there is a high WTP among all Norwegian households to improve the welfare of farmed Atlantic salmon through increased resistance to diseases and Salmon Lice, which may imply less use of medicines and chemicals in the production process. Only households that purchase farmed salmon are willing to pay an earmarked tax to reduce deformities and injuries.

The aims of this study were to estimate genetic (co)variance components of Atlantic cod for body weight at 2.5 years of age (BW) and resistance to vibriosis (a bacterial disease) and viral nervous necrosis (VNN). The traits were recorded on seven discrete year-classes: five year-classes for vibriosis (11,936 individuals), two year-classes for VNN (6185 individuals) and five year-classes for BW (22,703 individuals), with each trait recorded on separate sub-samples of the full-sib families. Three genetic groups were defined in the dataset: coastal cod south (CCS), coastal cod north (CCN) and north-east Arctic cod (NEAC). Significant differences between the groups were found only for VNN resistance, with expected survival rates of (approx.) 52% vs. 13% in CCS and NEAC, respectively. Furthermore, significant favorable heterosis was estimated for BW (+ 147 g) and vibriosis resistance (~ 22% relative increase in survival). All three traits had significant heritability estimates, with a moderate heritability for vibriosis resistance (0.16 ± 0.04), exceptionally high heritability for VNN resistance (0.68 ± 0.14) and a moderate to high heritability for BW (0.28 ± 0.05). All estimated genetic correlations between the traits were weak and not significantly different from zero. Common environmental family effects explained 5.6% and 6.6% of the liability variance for vibriosis and VNN, and 8.6% of the phenotypic variance for BW. The significant heritabilities and low genetic correlations indicate that joint genetic improvement of vibriosis resistance, VNN resistance and growth rate would be feasible.

The aim of this study was to compare genetic gain for a traditional aquaculture sib breeding scheme with breeding values based on phenotypic data (TBLUP) with a breeding scheme with genome-wide (GW) breeding values. Both breeding schemes were closed nuclei with discrete generations modeled by stochastic simulation. Optimum contribution selection was applied to restrict pedigree-based inbreeding to either 0.5 or 1% per generation. There were 1,000 selection candidates and a sib test group of either 4,000 or 8,000 fish. The number of selected dams and sires to create full sib families in each generation was determined from the optimum contribution selection method. True breeding values for a trait were simulated by summing the number of each QTL allele and the true effect of each of the 1,000 simulated QTL. Breeding values in TBLUP were predicted from phenotypic and pedigree information, whereas genomic breeding values were computed from genetic markers whose effects were estimated using a genomic BLUP model. In generation 5, genetic gain was 70 and 74% greater for the GW scheme than for the TBLUP scheme for inbreeding rates of 0.5 and 1%. The reduction in genetic variance was, however, greater for the GW scheme than for the TBLUP scheme due to fixation of some QTL. As expected, accuracy of selection increased with increasing heritability (e.g., from 0.77 with a heritability of 0.2 to 0.87 with a heritability of 0.6 for GW, and from 0.53 and 0.58 for TBLUP in generation 5 with sib information only). When the trait was measured on the selection candidate compared with only on sibs and the heritability was 0.4, accuracy increased from 0.55 to 0.69 for TBLUP and from 0.83 to 0.86 for GW. The number of selected sires to get the desired rate of inbreeding was in general less in GW than in TBLUP and was 33 for GW and 83 for TBLUP (rate of inbreeding 1% and heritability 0.4). With truncation selection, genetic gain for the scheme with GW breeding values was nearly twice as large as a scheme with traditional BLUP breeding values. The results indicate that the benefits of applying GW breeding values compared with TBLUP are reduced when contributions are optimized. In conclusion, genetic gain in aquaculture breeding schemes with optimized contributions can increase by as much as 81% by applying genome-wide breeding values compared with traditional BLUP breeding values.

The objective of this paper is to outline challenges associated with the inclusion of welfare issues in breeding goals for farm animals and to review the currently available methodologies and discuss their potential advantages and limitations to address these challenges. The methodology for weighing production traits with respect to cost efficiency and market prices are well developed and implemented in animal breeding goals. However, these methods are inadequate in terms of assessing proper values of traits with social and ethical values such as animal welfare, because such values are unlikely to be readily available from the product prices and costs in the market. Defining breeding goals that take animal welfare and ethical concerns into account, therefore, requires new approaches. In this paper we suggest a framework and an approach for defining breeding goals, including animal welfare. The definition of breeding goals including values related to animal welfare requires a multidisciplinary approach with a combination of different methods such as profit equations, stated preference techniques, and selection index theory. In addition, a participatory approach involving different stakeholders such as breeding organizations, food authorities, farmers, and animal welfare organizations should be applied. We conclude that even though these methods provide the necessary tools for considering welfare issues in the breeding goal, the practical application of these methods is yet to be achieved.

The aim of this study was to estimate genetic parameters and heterosis for weight, length and survival traits for common carp measured at different time periods at commercial farm conditions. A diallel cross between two land race strains (Duna and Amur), and two farmed strains (Tata and Szarvas 15) was used. Five females and 10 males per strain were used to produce six families for each of the 16 cross combinations resulting in 96 families each with 20 fish. The fish were weighed at tagging (W0), and also their length were measured at first autumn (W1, L1), second spring (W2, L2), and second autumn (W3, L3). Survival was defined as survival from second spring (W2) to second autumn (W3). Heritabilities for weight and length traits were estimated using univariate models, whereas genetic correlations and heritabilities for survival were estimated using multivariate models. The difference between the strains with respect to survival was clearly significant with Duna having the highest expected survival rate (81%), followed by Amur (69%), Tata (53%) and Szarvas 15 (51%). The level of heterosis (cross vs. purebred) varied from − 14 to 29% for weight traits, from 1.7 to 8.3% for length traits, and from 8–37% for pond survival. Heritabilities were low for early weight and length traits (W0, W1, W2, L1, and L2, 0.11–0.16) but high for W3 and L3 (0.49, 0.50). For survival the heritability on the underlying scale was 0.34 ± 0.09 corresponding to a heritability of ∼ 0.2 on the observable scale. High genetic correlations (0.81–0.98) were estimated between weight and length measured at the same time (W2/L2, and W3/ L3) and between weight measured in the first autumn (W1) and second spring (W2). Genetic correlations between weight and survival were low and non-significant for W2 (0.06 ± 0.35), but high and significant for W3 (0.65 ± 0.15). The high levels of heritabilities for length and weight at harvest (W3) and the moderate heritability for survival indicate that selective breeding for these traits could be successful in common carp.

This study compared the accuracy for genome-wide breeding values (GWEBV) with traditional BLUP breeding values estimated from phenotypic performance of sibs (BLUPEBV) in a typical sib based aquaculture breeding scheme. The breeding schemes were closed nuclei with 1000 selection candidates from 100 families in each generation G1 to G5. Phenotypes were recorded on sibs of the selection candidates. Both selection candidates and their recorded sibs were genotyped using dense SNP genotyping technology and marker effects estimated from the sibs were used to predict GWEBV of the selection candidates. With 40 sibs, accuracy in G3 was 0.54 for BLUPEBV compared to 0.78 for GWEBV (marker density 0.5Ne / M), i.e. a relative increase of 44%. When the number of sibs for the GWEBV scheme decreased from 40 to 20 sibs, accuracy decreased by 7% in G3. Both for BLUPEBV and GWEBV breeding schemes, the effect of heritability on accuracy was small and accuracy increased around 4% when increasing heritability from 0.2 to 0.4. Contrary to expectations differences in accuracy between BLUPEBV and GWEBV were the same for the low (0.2) and high (0.4) heritability, which may be due to the large number of phenotypic records used. When records were only available in generation G1, accuracy of GWEBV decreased over generations and was 0.66 in G1, 0.57 in G2 and 0.51 in G3 with 40 sibs and marker density 0.5Ne / M. Accuracy increased with increased marker density for GWEBV, but the increase was small when marker density increased from 0.5 to 1.0Ne / M except when the test group size was increased from 20 to 40, indicating that with a higher marker density a higher number of phenotypes is needed. Increasing the size of the genome (1000 cM vs. 2000 cM) decreased the accuracy for the GWEBV breeding values but increased the accuracy for the BLUPEBV breeding values. Overall, accuracy was up to 33% higher for GWEBV than for BLUPEBV for the studied scenarios because both between and within family genetic variances are utilized when estimating genome-wide breeding values. The results indicate that aquaculture breeding companies can increase the accuracy of selection when using genomic selection in a typical sib based aquaculture breeding scheme.

The objective of this paper was to calculate and compare economic values for dairy cattle traits across the Nordic countries. The stochastic model used was dynamic, and it simulated production, reproduction and health in a dairy herd. Finland and Norway had the highest economic values for milk production, whereas Denmark and Sweden had lower values, assuming a fixed number of cows. Norway had the highest absolute economic values for stillbirth, retained placenta, laminitis, feed intake capacity, milking speed and daily gain. Denmark had the highest absolute economic value for milk fever and calving ease. Finland had the highest economic value for conception rate. Sweden had the lowest economic value for body weight but the highest for temperament. In most cases the differences in economic values were less than two-fold, with greater than two-fold differences for stillbirth (Sweden vs. Finland and Norway), retained placenta (Sweden vs. Norway), laminitis (Sweden vs. Denmark and Norway) and days from calving to first heat (Sweden vs. Finland). The consideration of milk quota, for most traits, caused minor (less than two-fold) changes in economic values. The differences in economic values, for most of the traits, were slight and do not seem to be a hindrance towards a closer cooperation within a joint breeding programme for the Nordic countries.

A high speed, selective, and robust capillary electrophoresis (CE) method with high capacity was developed and validated for determination of assay of 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino- d -arabinitol in active pharmaceutical ingredients, solutions, and tablets during the development work at preclinical and Phase I and II clinical studies. 1,4-Dideoxy-1,4-imino- d -arabinitol, tartrate has (almost) no UV absorption. Therefore, the developed CE method for quantification was based on indirect UV detection. A cation CE principle was chosen using an electrolyte at pH 4.0 containing dimethyldiphenylphosphonium hydroxide, which has a strong UV absorbance. The quantification was performed using internal standard technique, by which piperidine was used as internal standard. The method was validated. The validation results showed that the CE method was suitable for the assay (and dissolution) analysis.

We studied genotype by environment interaction (G × E) for body weight (BW) of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) from the National cod breeding program in Norway. Records of 13,811 fish in a nucleus farm (NUC) and two test farms (PENorth, PESouth) in year-class (YC) 2007, and for 9149 fish in NUC and one test farm in YC 2010 were available. Heterogeneity of variances and heritabilities ( ) were estimated using a univariate animal model with environmental effects common to full-sibs (full-model). Genetic correlations ( ) between farms were estimated using a multivariate full-model and a reduced-model (without ) for each YC. Heterogeneity of was observed in both YC 2007 (0.10 to 0.16) and YC 2010 (0.08 to 0.26). The estimates of between NUC and test farms were relatively high for both models (0.81 ± 0.19 to 0.96 ± 0.17) and (0.81 ± 0.08 to 0.86 ± 0.04), suggesting low re-ranking of genotypes. Strong re-ranking of genotypes between PESouth and PENorth may be less important because most cod producers are situated close to the breeding nucleus. In conclusion, G × E between NUC and test farms were low and at present there is no need for separate breeding programs for BW in cod.

The effect of Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-beta) administered locally around the fracture line of healing rat tibial fractures was investigated after 40 days of healing. TGF-beta in a dose of 4 ng or 40 ng was injected every second day during the healing period. The strength, stiffness, energy absorption and deflection of the fractures were measured in a materials-testing machine. Compared with placebo-treated animals, the ultimate load of the fractures increased in the group injected with 40 ng of TGF-beta, but not in those injected with 4 ng. TGF-beta induced a dose-dependent increase in the cross-sectional area of the callus and bone at the fracture line. Consequently, local treatment of fractures with TGF-beta increases the callus formation and strength. The energy absorption and deflection capacities of the healing fractures are preserved.

Udgivelsesdato: 1. marts 2006 The objective of this paper was to present a model of a dairy cattle production system for the derivation of economic values and their standard deviations for both production and functional traits under Danish production circumstances. The stochastic model used is dynamic, and simulates production and health in a dairy herd. Because of indirect effects between traits, the phenotypic levels of (related) traits can change as a result of genetic changes. Economic values for milk production and body weight were 0.28 and -0.76 €/kg per cow-year respectively. For incidence of milk fever, mastitis, retained placenta and laminitis economic values were -402.1, -162.5, -79.0 and -210.2 €/incidence per cow-year. The economic values for involuntary culling rate, stillbirth and conception rate were -6.66, -1.63, and 1.98 €/% per cow-year, respectively and the economic value for days from calving to first heat was -0.94 €/day per cow-year. Standard deviations of economic values expressing variation in realised profit of a farm before and after a genetic change were computed using a linear Taylor series expansion. Expressed as coefficient of variation, standard deviations of economic values based on 1000 replicates ranged between 0.07 (milk production) to 16 (retained placenta).

The objectives were to derive economic values (EVs) and their standard deviations for dairy cow traits in Denmark under future possible production circumstances using a stochastic bio-economic farm model. EVs were derived for three different scenarios with the first representing current Danish production circumstances. The other two scenarios were based on a report with predictions of expected developments in the Danish agricultural sector with respect to structural development and market situation. The three scenarios differed with respect to herd size, level of trait, prices and presence of milk quota. EVs for functional traits differed only slightly between scenarios, but without a milk quota the relative importance of milk yield compared to the functional traits increased. Under current production circumstances with milk quota, EVs of milk yield and body weight were 0.13 and -0.51 epsilon/kg per cow-year. For milk fever, mastitis, retained placenta and laminitis EVs were -277, -124, -39 and -27 epsilon/incidence/cow-year. The EVs for involuntary culling, stillbirth, conception rate and days from first calving to first heat were -5.2, -0.61, 1.69 epsilon/%/cow-year and -0.62 epsilon/day/cow-year. Standard deviations of EVs expressing variation in realised farm profit were lower in a situation with fixed number of cows on the farm than in a situation with milk quota.

The aim of this study was to characterise the effects of genotype, parity and nutrition on performance and the relationship between body condition and body weight. A total of 657 lactations from 322 cows were used. Three breeds were used, Danish Holstein, Danish Red and Jersey. Each breed was subdivided into two lines selected to differ in milk yield. Within line cows were randomly assigned to either a normal or low energy density total mixed ration. Three 1-week periods representing early lactation, peak milk yield and late lactation were identified for the analyses. For the analysis of the relationship between body weight and condition score, the dry period was also considered. There were significant effects of breed on all performance measures but no effect of line (with the exception of condition score). Cows fed the normal energy density diet had higher milk yield, fat percentage and condition score and weighed more than cows on the low feeding treatment. There was a highly significant relationship between body weight and condition score. In all periods except the dry period, there were significant effects of breed (P

The effect of administering growth hormone for different periods of time on the mechanical properties of healing rat tibial fractures was investigated after 40 days of healing. Biosynthetic human growth hormone, 2.7 mg/kg body weight/day, was administered to three groups of rats for 1, 2, or 3 weeks following fracture, whereas isotonic saline was administered to a control group for 3 weeks. The ultimate load values and maximum stiffness of the fractures increased in the groups injected with growth hormone for 2 or 3 weeks; linear regression analysis revealed a high probability of a positive linear relationship. In the intact bones an increase in ultimate load, maximum stiffness, and energy absorption at ultimate load was found in the group injected with growth hormone for 3 weeks, with linear regression analysis again showing a high probability of a positive linear relationship.

In contrast to other species, production animals in dairy cattle are mainly purebreds. However, crossbred cows are becoming more widespread due to better profitability from heterosis of economically important production and health traits. Currently, breeding goals (BGs) for purebreds used in crossbreeding systems are optimized for maximizing genetic gain in purebred cows. This might not be optimal when the aim is to increase heterosis and breed complementarity in order to maximize profit in crossbred cows. We hypothesize that differentiated BGs in purebreds that complement each other can improve the performance of crossbred production animals. To test this hypothesis, we set up a pure- and crossbreeding design using the simulation tool ADAM with two breeds, Danish Jersey (DJ) and Nordic Holstein (NH). Real marker genotypes from these two breeds were used as reference to resemble the real population structure of the two breeds. A progeny testing scheme was simulated for 20 years to build large genomic reference populations in each breed followed by a genomic testing scheme of 5 years. Finally, one generation of crossbreeding between the two purebreds was generated. The BG in the purebreds included two traits, a production trait and a health trait, with a genetic correlation between the 2 traits of -0.46 for DJ and -0.35 for NH. Three BGs with different economic values of the traits were set up to test the hypothesis: (1) a reference scenario resembling theweights in the present Nordic total merit index for DJ and NH; (2) the same BG in NH as in 1 but in DJ the BG had a higher weight on health; and (3) BGs only weighing production in NH and health in DJ. The three scenarios was evaluated in the crossbred population according to genetic level and dominance. Preliminary results show a higher degree of dominance in the crossbred animals compared to the purebred animals, but a lower genetic level, especially in scenario 3. The outcomes of this study can be used to evaluate the value of setting up BGs in purebreds specified for crossbreeding

Crossbreeding is the most common breeding system for pigs and poultry, but not for dairy cattle. When selecting purebred lines for crossbred performance, it becomes possible to take advantage of both breed complementarity and heterosis. In this paper, we present a new structure of dairy cattle breeding with the aim to improve crossbred performance in production cows. The structureof the dairy sector can be organised like a pyramid with nucleus herds, multiplier herds, and production herds. Genetic improvement of purebreds takes place in the nucleus. Surplus females from the breeding nucleus are transferred to the multiplier level, where they are used as dams of crossbred animals for production herds. In addition, we hypothesise that joint breeding planning and formulation of breeding goals for each parental breed are necessary in order to optimisecrossbred performance.

The rapid life cycle of most insects allows for the direct comparison of simulated and realised genetic gain from insect breeding schemes, enabling real-time optimisation of the breeding scheme design. However, rearing and maintenance of insects gives rise to major challenges due to specific dietary and environmental requirements, complex life cycles and reproductive patterns and this adds complexity to all aspects of the breeding plan implementation. We havedeveloped an experimental design for large-scale individual phenotyping and tracing pedigree records and applied this to estimate genetic parameters for larval size and egg-to-adult development time using the housefly (Musca domestica) as a model species. These parameters contribute valuable information on the potentials for genetic improvement in this species and the methods and results presented can be used more generally in the process of insect breedingscheme implementation and optimisation.

International audience; AbstractBackgroundThe aim of the study was to estimate genetic parameters for direct and social genetic effects (SGE) for growth and welfare traits in farmed Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). A SGE refers to the effect of an individual’s genes on trait performance of its social partners. In total, 2100 individually tagged juveniles from 100 families at an average age of 222 days post-hatching were used. Each family was separated into three groups of seven fish, and were randomly assigned to 100 experimental tanks, together with fish from two other families. Body weight and length of the first, second and third dorsal fin and the caudal fin measured by digital image analysis were measured at the start of the experiment, after two weeks, and after six weeks. Fin erosion was scored subjectively after six weeks. Variance components estimated using a conventional animal model were compared to those of an animal model including a SGE.ResultsHeritabilities from the conventional animal model ranged from 0.24 to 0.34 for body weight and 0.05 to 0.80 for fin length. Heritabilities for fin erosion were highest for the first dorsal fin (0.83 ± 0.08, mean ± standard error) and lowest for the third dorsal fin (0.01 ± 0.04). No significant SGE were found for body weight, whereas SGE for fin lengths were significant after two and six weeks. Contributions to the total heritable variance were equal to 21.5% (6.1 ± 2.1) for the direct effect, 33.1% (9.4 ± 3.2) for the direct-social covariance, and 45.4% (12.9 ± 4.1) for the social variance for length of the first dorsal fin. For fin erosion, SGE were only significant for the second and third dorsal fin.ConclusionsIncluding SGE for fin length and fin erosion in the animal model increased the estimated heritable variation. However, estimates of total heritable variances were inaccurate and a larger experiment is needed to accurately quantify total heritable variance. Despite this, our results demonstrate that considering social breeding values for fin length or fin erosion when selecting fish will enable us to improve response to selection for welfare traits in Atlantic cod juveniles.