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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) influences cortical processes. Recent findings indicate, however, that, in turn, the efficacy of TMS depends on the state of ongoing cortical oscillations. Whereas power and phase of electromyographic (EMG) activity recorded from the hand muscles as well as neural synchrony between cortex and hand muscles are known to influence the effect of TMS, to date, no study has shown an influence of the phase of cortical oscillations during wakefulness. We applied single-pulse TMS over the motor cortex and recorded motor-evoked potentials along with the electroencephalogram (EEG) and EMG. We correlated phase and power of ongoing EEG and EMG signals with the motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude. We also investigated the functional connectivity between cortical and hand muscle activity (corticomuscular coherence) with the MEP amplitude. EEG and EMG power and phase in a frequency band around 18 Hz correlated with the MEP amplitude. High beta-band (∼34 Hz) corticomuscular coherence exhibited a positive linear relationship with the MEP amplitude, indicating that strong synchrony between cortex and hand muscles at the moment when TMS is applied entails large MEPs. Improving upon previous studies, we demonstrate a clear dependence of TMS-induced motor effects on the state of ongoing EEG phase and power fluctuations. We conclude that not only the sampling of incoming information but also the susceptibility of cortical communication flow depends cyclically on neural phase.

There is a growing body of research on the functional role of oscillatory brain activity. However, its relation to functional connectivity has remained largely obscure. In the sensorimotor system, movement-related changes emerge in the α (8-14 Hz) and β (15-30 Hz) range (event-related desynchronization, ERD, before and during movement; event-related synchronization, ERS, after movement offset). Some studies suggest that β-ERS may functionally inhibit new movements. According to the gating-by-inhibition framework ( Jensen and Mazaheri 2010), we expected that the ERD would go along with increased corticomuscular coupling, and vice versa. By combining transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and electroencephalography, we were directly able to test this hypothesis. In a reaction time task, single TMS pulses were delivered randomly during ERD/ERS to the motor cortex. The motor-evoked potential (MEP) was then related to the β and α frequencies and corticomuscular coherence. Results indicate that MEPs are smaller when preceded by high pre-TMS β-band power and low pre-TMS α-band corticomuscular coherence (and vice versa) in a network of motor-relevant areas comprising frontal, parietal, and motor cortices. This confirms that an increase in rhythms that putatively reflect functionally inhibited states goes along with weaker coupling of the respective brain regions.

Our brain has the capacity of providing an experience of hearing even in the absence of auditory stimulation. This can be seen as illusory conscious perception. While increasing evidence postulates that conscious perception requires specific brain states that systematically relate to specific patterns of oscillatory activity, the relationship between auditory illusions and oscillatory activity remains mostly unexplained. To investigate this we recorded brain activity with magnetoencephalography and collected intracranial data from epilepsy patients while participants listened to familiar as well as unknown music that was partly replaced by sections of pink noise. We hypothesized that participants have a stronger experience of hearing music throughout noise when the noise sections are embedded in familiar compared to unfamiliar music. This was supported by the behavioral results showing that participants rated the perception of music during noise as stronger when noise was presented in a familiar context. Time-frequency data show that the illusory perception of music is associated with a decrease in auditory alpha power pointing to increased auditory cortex excitability. Furthermore, the right auditory cortex is concurrently synchronized with the medial temporal lobe, putatively mediating memory aspects associated with the music illusion. We thus assume that neuronal activity in the highly excitable auditory cortex is shaped through extensive communication between the auditory cortex and the medial temporal lobe, thereby generating the illusion of hearing music during noise.

1. Subjective tinnitus is characterized by the perception of a phantom sound in the absence of any physical source. 2. While transient tinnitus usually lasts only a couple of seconds to a few hours, chronic tinnitus is an ongoing conscious perception of sound for more than 6 months with low incidence of spontaneous remissions. 3. Empirical studies in animals and humans often show enhancement of cortical excitability in the auditory areas associated with the tinnitus. 4. Theoretical and experimental studies suggest an additional involvement of extra-auditory cortical regions, especially the frontal cortex, the parietal cortex, and the cingulum. 5. Using magnetoencephalograpic recordings, we found that these areas are functionally connected with each other and form a global fronto–parietal–cingulate network. 6. The top–down influence of this global network on auditory areas is associated with the distress that is perceived by many individuals with tinnitus. 7. We suggest that both entities – the enhanced excitability of the central auditory system and the integration with a global cortical network – are important to generate and maintain a conscious percept of tinnitus. 8. This chapter will concentrate on how a conscious perception of tinnitus is formed and maintained throughout a lifetime.

Subjective experience suggests that negatively arousing memories are harder to control than neutral ones. Here, we investigate this issue in an item-cued directed forgetting experiment. Electroencephalogram event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded as participants viewed un-arousing neutral and highly arousing negative photographs, each followed by a cue to remember or forget it. Directed forgetting, that is reduced recognition of ’to-be-forgotten’ items, occurred for neutral but not negative pictures. ERPs revealed three underlying effects: first, during picture viewing a late parietal positive potential (LPP) was more pronounced for negative than for neutral pictures. Second, ’remember’ cues were associated with larger LPPs than ’forget’ cues. Third, an enhanced frontal positivity appeared for ’forget’ cues. This frontal positivity was generated in right dorso-lateral prefrontal regions following neutral pictures and in medial frontal cortex following negative pictures. LPP magnitude when viewing negative pictures was correlated with reduced directed forgetting, whereas both the enhanced frontal positivity for forget cues and the larger parietal positivity for remember cues predicted more directed forgetting. This study indicates that both processes of selective rehearsal (parietal positivities) and frontally controlled inhibition contribute to successful directed forgetting. However, due to their deeper incidental processing, highly arousing negative pictures are exempt from directed forgetting.