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Background: Early growth faltering is common but is difficult to reverse after the first 2 years of life.Objective: To describe feeding practices and growth in infants and young children in diverse low-income settings prior to undertaking a complementary feeding trial.Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted through the Global Network for Women's and Children's Health Research in Guatemala, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, and Pakistan. Feeding questionnaires were administered to convenience samples of mothers of 5- to 9-month old infants and 12- to 24-month-old toddlers. After standardized training, anthropometric measurements were obtained from the toddlers. Following the 2006 World Health Organization Growth Standards, stunting was defined as length-for-age < -2SD, and wasting as weight-for-length < -2SD. Logistic regression was applied to evaluate relationships between stunting and wasting and consumption of meat (including chicken and liver and not including fish).Results: Data were obtained from 1,500 infants with a mean (+/- SD) age of 6.9 +/- 1.4 months and 1,658 toddlers with a mean age of 17.2 +/- 3.5 months. The majority of the subjects in both age groups were breastfed. Less than 25% of the infants received meat regularly, whereas 62% of toddlers consumed these foods regularly, although the rates varied widely among sites. Stunting rate ranged from 44% to 66% among sites; wasting prevalence was less than 10% at all sites. After controlling for covariates, consumption of meat was associated with a reduced likelihood of stunting (OR = 0.64; 95% CI, 0.46 to 0.90).Conclusions: The strikingly high stunting rates in these toddlers and the protective effect of meat consumption against stunting emphasize the need for interventions to improve complementary feeding practices, beginning in infancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants are susceptible to postnatal zinc deficiency, but whether this susceptibility is due to intrauterine factors or to high postnatal growth requirements is unknown. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that the size of the exchangeable zinc pool (EZP), which reflects metabolically available zinc, would be smaller in SGA than in appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) infants born prematurely. DESIGN: Intravenous 70Zn (45 microg/kg) was administered to 10 SGA infants (8 boys) with a mean (+/-SD) gestational age of 33.3 +/- 1.8 wk and to 11 AGA infants (8 boys) with a mean (+/-SD) gestational age of 32.4 +/- 1.2 wk within 24 h of birth. The EZP was determined from isotope enrichment in spot urine collections on days 3-7. RESULTS: The mean birth weight of the SGA infants was 1.30 +/- 0.2 kg and of the AGA infants was 1.84 +/- 0.3 kg (P = 0.0001). The EZP size was significantly smaller in the SGA than in the AGA infants on an absolute basis (13.3 +/- 2.8 and 25.2 +/- 8.1 mg; P = 0.0002) and relative to body weight (10.3 +/- 2.5 and 13.9 +/- 4.5 mg/kg; P = 0.02). The difference remained significant after adjustment for gestational age and birth weight. CONCLUSION: These data provide evidence for differential zinc status at birth between SGA and AGA infants born prematurely at similar stages of gestation and offer at least a partial explanation for the reported benefits of postnatal zinc supplementation. Copyright © 2006 American Society for Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Calcium fortification of maize has been achieved for millennia in Central America by the process of nixtamalization. Bioavailability of calcium is, however, compromised by phytate, which is present in large quantities in maize kernels and is only modestly reduced by nixtamalization. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to compare the absorption of calcium from tortilla meals prepared from low-phytate maize with that from meals prepared from maize with typical phytate content. DESIGN: At 1-mo intervals, 5 healthy adult women were fed 2 test meals of approximately 140 g tortillas in lieu of breakfast. On one occasion, the tortillas were prepared from maize with approximately 60% phytate reduction, and, on the other occasion, they were prepared from the matching isohybrid wild-type maize. Beginning midway through the test meal, (44)Ca (0.3 mg/kg body wt) was administered in water as an extrinsic label; (42)Ca (0.06 mg/kg body wt) was administered intravenously immediately after the test meal. Isotope ratios of (42)Ca to (43)Ca and of (44)Ca to (43)Ca were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in urine collected as an 8-h pool from the period 16-24 h after intravenous tracer administration and prepared by the oxalate precipitation method. Fractional absorption of calcium was determined by using a dual-isotope ratio technique. RESULTS: Mean fractional absorption of calcium from tortillas prepared from the low-phytate maize (0.50 +/- 0.03) was significantly (P = 0.003) greater than that from tortillas prepared from the control maize (0.35 +/- 0.07). CONCLUSION: The increase in the quantity of calcium absorbed could be of practical importance for calcium nutriture when the intake of dairy products is limited. Copyright © 2005 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Information is needed on the fractional absorption of zinc (FAZ) and absorbed zinc (AZ) during prolonged exposure to zinc-fortified foods. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to measure FAZ and AZ from diets fortified with different amounts of zinc and to determine whether zinc absorption changes over approximately 7 wk. DESIGN: Forty-one stunted, moderately anemic children received daily, at breakfast and lunch, 100 g wheat products fortified with 3 mg Fe (ferrous sulfate) and 0 (group Zn-0), 3 (group Zn-3), or 9 (group Zn-9) mg Zn (zinc sulfate) per 100 g flour. FAZ was measured on days 2-3 and 51-52; meal-specific AZs were calculated as the product of FAZ and zinc intake. RESULTS: For the breakfast and lunch meals combined, mean total zinc intakes were 2.14, 4.72, and 10.04 mg/d in groups Zn-0, Zn-3, and Zn-9, respectively, during the initial absorption studies; mean (+/-SD) FAZ values were 0.341 +/- 0.111, 0.237 +/- 0.052, and 0.133 +/- 0.041, respectively, on days 2-3 (P < 0.001) and did not change significantly on days 51-52 in the subset of 31 children studied twice. Mean initial AZ was positively related to zinc intake (0.71 +/- 0.18, 1.11 +/- 0.21, and 1.34 +/- 0.47 mg/d, respectively; P < 0.001); final values did not differ significantly from the initial values. CONCLUSIONS: AZ from meals containing zinc-fortified wheat products increases in young children relative to the level of fortification and changes only slightly during approximately 7-wk periods of consumption. Although consumption of zinc-fortified foods may reduce FAZ, zinc fortification at the levels studied positively affects total daily zinc absorption, even after nearly 2 mo of exposure to zinc-fortified diets. Copyright © 2005 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Identification of allelic variants in a single gene that determine the phytate content of maize kernels and the subsequent breeding of low-phytate maize have facilitated studies designed to determine quantitatively the effects of maize phytate on the bioavailability of minerals in maize. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to determine the relation between the fractional absorption of zinc (FAZ) and the phytate content and phytate:zinc molar ratios of maize tortillas prepared from hybrids with different phytate contents. DESIGN: Six healthy adults were fed, as the only food for 2 d, maize tortillas prepared from 1 of 2 low-phytate mutants: lpa1-1 (lpa1-1-LP) or Nutridense Low Phytate (ND-LP), which have phytate reductions of approximately 60% and approximately 80%, respectively, compared with their respective wild-type isohybrids. Four additional subjects were fed tortillas prepared from the corresponding wild-type isohybrids (lpa1-1-WT and ND-WT) according to the same study design. Meals were extrinsically labeled with zinc stable isotopes, and FAZ was determined with a dual-isotope-tracer ratio technique. Overall FAZ values were examined in relation to dietary phytate and phytate:zinc molar ratios by using a mixed nonlinear regression model. RESULTS: The mean (+/-SD) FAZ values from tortillas prepared from ND-LP, lpa1-1-LP, lpa1-1-WT, and ND-WT were 0.38 +/- 0.07, 0.28 +/- 0.04, 0.15 +/- 0.07, and 0.13 +/- 0.05, respectively. A negative relation (P < 0.001) was found between FAZ and both dietary phytate and the phytate:zinc molar ratio. The effect of dietary zinc (8-14 mg Zn/d) under these experimental conditions was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: FAZ from maize tortillas is positively related to the extent of phytate reduction achieved with low-phytate hybrids. Copyright © 2004 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zinc has earned recognition recently as a micronutrient of outstanding and diverse biological, clinical, and global public health importance. Regulation of absorption by zinc transporters in the enterocyte, together with saturation kinetics of the absorption process into and across the enterocyte, are the principal means by which whole-body zinc homeostasis is maintained. Several physiologic factors, most notably the quantity of zinc ingested, determine the quantity of zinc absorbed and the efficiency of absorption. Other factors are age and the time over which zinc is ingested. Zinc from supplements has not been shown to be absorbed differently from that taken with meals that lack inhibitors of zinc absorption. The principal dietary factor known to impair zinc bioavailability is inositol hexa- (and penta-) phosphate or phytate. Modeling of zinc absorption as a function of dietary zinc and phytate accounts for >80% of the variability in the quantity of zinc absorbed. Fitting the model to new data has resulted in continual improvement in parameter estimates, which currently indicate a maximal absorption in adults of approximately 6 mg Zn/d and that the average estimated dietary requirement doubles with 1000 mg dietary phytate/d. Intestinal excretion of endogenous zinc is regulated in response to recent absorption and to zinc status. The quantitative relation of intestinal excretion of endogenous zinc to zinc absorption is currently considered to be of major importance in the determination of zinc requirements. The effects of phytate on intestinal losses of endogenous zinc merit further investigation but are probably not of the same magnitude as its inhibitory effects on absorption of exogenous zinc. Copyright © 2010 American Society for Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a review of how the challenge of bioavailability was approached in establishing the Dietary Reference Intakes, with a special focus on folic acid, vitamin B-12, beta-carotene, iron, selenium, and zinc, the targeted micronutrients for this workshop. In a future perspective, the necessity of having a clear working definition of bioavailability is emphasized. The bioavailability of micronutrients should be considered, with advantage, under subheadings determined by the broad factors that affect bioavailability. Special emphasis is given to giving greater and specific attention to factors involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. These factors, it is argued, are best considered separately from even a broad definition of bioavailability and have the potential to provide new insights into some micronutrient requirements. Copyright © 2010 American Society for Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Zinc fortification is recommended as an appropriate strategy to enhance population zinc status, but guidelines are needed on the appropriate types and levels of zinc fortification of cereal flours for mass fortification programs.Objective: To review available information on the scientific rationale, efficacy, and effectiveness of zinc fortification programs, and to develop guidelines on appropriate levels of fortification of cereal flours, based on simulations of the amount of zinc absorbed under different dietary conditions and information on possible adverse effects.Methods: Systematic review of scientific literature and application of an existing prediction equation to estimate zinc absorption.Results: Previously completed research demonstrates that zinc intake and absorption are increased when zinc-fortified foods are consumed, but little information is, as yet, available on the biologic impact of large-scale fortification programs. Studies suggest that there are no disadvantages of the recommended ranges of zinc fortification with regard to the sensory properties of zinc-fortified foods, and most research indicates that there are no adverse effects of zinc fortification on the utilization of other minerals.Conclusions: Zinc fortification of cereal flour is a safe and appropriate strategy for enhancing the zinc status of population subgroups who consume adequate amounts of fortified cereal flour, although additional information is needed to confirm the efficacy and effectiveness of large-scale zinc fortification programs to control zinc deficiency. The appropriate level of fortification depends on the population subgroup, their usual amount of flour intake, the degree of milling and fermentation that is practiced, and the usual intakes of zinc and phytate from other food sources. Fortification recommendations are presented for different dietary scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 mo of life followed by optimal complementary feeding are critical public health measures for reducing and preventing morbidity and mortality in young children. Clinical factors, such as birth weight, prematurity, and illness, that affect the iron and zinc requirements of younger infants are discussed. Maternal diet and nutritional status do not have a strong effect on the mineral content of human milk, but physiologic changes in milk and the infants' status determine the dependence of the infant on complementary foods in addition to human milk to meet iron and zinc requirements after 6 mo. The nature of zinc absorption, which is suitably characterized by saturation response modeling, dictates that plant-based diets, which are low in zinc, are associated with low absolute daily absorbed zinc, which is inadequate to meet requirements. Foods with a higher zinc content, such as meats, are much more likely to be sufficient to meet dietary requirements. Current plant-based complementary feeding patterns for older fully breastfed infants in both developed and developing countries pose a risk of zinc deficiency. The strong rationale for the potential benefits of providing meat as an early complementary food, and the examples of successful intervention programs, provide potent incentives to pursue broader implementation programs, with concurrent rigorous evaluation of both efficacy and effectiveness. Copyright © 2007 American Society for Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The association between low initial plasma zinc concentration and risk of morbidity over the subsequent 3 mo was examined in a cohort of 116 children aged 12-59 mo recovering from acute diarrhea. Children with low initial plasma zinc (< or = 8.4 micromol/L) had more episodes of diarrhea [risk ratio (RR): 1.47; 95% CI: 1.03, 2.49) and severe diarrhea, defined as passage of > or = 5 liquid stools in a 24-h period, (RR: 1.70; 95% CI: 1.06, 2.72) than did children with normal plasma zinc (> 8.4 micromol/L). The mean prevalence rate of diarrhea associated with fever was 4 times higher in the zinc-deficient group (P = 0.01). Overall, the difference in the number of episodes of acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRIs) between the two groups was not statistically significant (RR: 1.76; 95% CI: 0.88-3.53) but the mean prevalence rate of ALRIs was 3.5 times higher in children with low plasma zinc (P = 0.05). The increased risk of diarrhea and ALRIs episodes in zinc-deficient children was larger in boys than in girls. These results show that children with low plasma zinc concentrations are at risk for increased diarrheal and respiratory morbidity. Copyright (c) 1998 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Data regarding effects of small-quantity-lipid-based nutrient supplements (SQ-LNS) on maternal serum zinc concentrations (SZC) in pregnancy and lactation are limited., Objectives: The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of preconception compared with prenatal zinc supplementation (compared with control) on maternal SZC and hypozincemia during pregnancy and early lactation in women in low-resource settings, and assess associations with birth anthropometry., Methods: From ∼100 women/arm at each of 3 sites (Guatemala, India, and Pakistan) of the Women First Preconception Maternal Nutrition trial, we compared SZC at 12- and 34-wk gestation (n = 651 and 838, respectively) and 3-mo postpartum (n = 742) in women randomly assigned to daily SQ-LNS containing 15 mg zinc from ≥3 mo before conception (preconception, arm 1), from ∼12 wk gestation through delivery (early pregnancy, arm 2) or not at all (control, arm 3). Birth anthropometry was examined for newborns with ultrasound-determined gestational age. Statistical analyses were performed separately for each time point., Results: At 12-wk gestation and 3-mo postpartum, no statistical differences in mean SZC were observed among arms. At 34-wk, mean SZC for arms 1 and 2 were significantly higher than for arm 3 (50.3, 50.8, 47.8 μg/dL, respectively; P = 0.005). Results were not impacted by correction for inflammation or albumin concentrations. Prevalence of hypozincemia at 12-wk (<56 μg/dL) was 23% in Guatemala, 26% in India, and 65% in Pakistan; at 34 wk (<50 μg/dL), 36% in Guatemala, 48% in India, and 74% in Pakistan; and at 3-mo postpartum (<66 μg/dL) 79% in Guatemala, 91% in India, and 92% in Pakistan. Maternal hypozincemia at 34-wk was associated with lower birth length-for-age Z-scores (all sites P = 0.013, Pakistan P = 0.008) and weight-for-age Z-scores (all sites P = 0.017, Pakistan P = 0.022)., Conclusions: Despite daily zinc supplementation for ≥7 mo, high rates of maternal hypozincemia were observed. The association of hypozincemia with impaired fetal growth suggests widespread zinc deficiency in these settings. This trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT01883193., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Feeding infants a sub-optimal diet deprives them of critical nutrients for their physical and cognitive development. The objective of this study is to describe the intake of foods of low nutritional value (junk foods) and identify the association with growth and developmental outcomes in infants up to 18 months in low-resource settings., Methods: This is a secondary analysis of data from an iron-rich complementary foods (meat versus fortified cereal) randomized clinical trial on nutrition conducted in low-resource settings in four low- and middle-income countries (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guatemala, Pakistan, and Zambia). Mothers in both study arms received nutritional messages on the importance of exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months with continued breastfeeding up to at least 12 months. This study was designed to identify the socio-demographic predictors of feeding infants' complementary foods of low nutritional value (junk foods) and to assess the associations between prevalence of junk food use with neurodevelopment (assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II) and growth at 18 months., Results: 1,231 infants were enrolled, and 1,062 (86%) completed the study. Junk food feeding was more common in Guatemala, Pakistan, and Zambia than in the Democratic Republic of Congo. 7% of the infants were fed junk foods at 6 months which increased to 70% at 12 months. Non-exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months, higher maternal body mass index, more years of maternal and paternal education, and higher socioeconomic status were associated with feeding junk food. Prevalence of junk foods use was not associated with adverse neurodevelopmental or growth outcomes., Conclusion: The frequency of consumption of junk food was high in these low-resource settings but was not associated with adverse neurodevelopment or growth over the study period., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Chiwila, Krebs, Manasyan, Chomba, Mwenechanya, Mazariegos, Sami, Pasha, Tshefu, Lokangaka, Goldenberg, Bose, Koso-Thomas, Goco, Do, McClure, Hambidge, Westcott and Carlo.)

This research describes the proportion of children in four low- and middle-income countries with adequate dietary practices at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months of age and how these practices changed over time using the World Health Organisation and UNICEF's infant young child feeding (IYCF) indicators. The associations between the IYCF indicators and anthropometric z-scores from 6 to 24 months, and between the IYCF indicators and the family care indicators (FCIs) at 24 months are described. This was a longitudinal study of offspring from participants in the Women First Preconception Maternal Nutrition Trial conducted in Sud-Ubangi, Democratic Republic of Congo; Chimaltenango, Guatemala; Belagavi, North Karnataka, India; and Thatta, Sindh Province, Pakistan. The frequency of the minimum dietary diversity (MDD), minimum meal frequency (MMF), and minimum adequate diet (MAD) increased between 6 and 24 months, but even at 24 months MAD remained below 50% at all sites. MDD (β = 0.12; 95% CI = 0.04-0.22) and MMF (β = 0.10; 95% CI = 0.03-0.17) were positively associated with length-for-age z-score at 24 months. All IYCF indicators were positively associated with mean total FCI score: MDD (proportion ratio [PR] = 1.04; 95% CI = 1.02-1.07), MMF (PR = 1.02; 95% CI = 1.01-1.04), MAD (PR = 1.05; 95% CI = 1.02-1.08). Although there are multiple barriers to young children having an adequate diet, our results support a positive association between familial interactions and improved IYCF feeding practices., (© 2023 The Authors. Maternal & Child Nutrition published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Maternal nutrition in preconception and early pregnancy influences fetal growth. Evidence for effects of prenatal maternal nutrition on early child development (ECD) in low-income and middle-income countries is limited., Objectives: To examine impact of maternal nutrition supplementation initiated prior to or during pregnancy on ECD, and to examine potential association of postnatal growth with ECD domains., Design: Secondary analysis regarding the offspring of participants of a maternal multicountry, individually randomised trial., Setting: Rural Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guatemala, India and Pakistan., Participants: 667 offspring of Women First trial participants, aged 24 months., Intervention: Maternal lipid-based nutrient supplement initiated preconceptionally (arm 1, n=217), 12 weeks gestation (arm 2, n=230) or not (arm 3, n=220); intervention stopped at delivery., Main Outcome Measures: The INTERGROWTH-21st Neurodevelopment Assessment (INTER-NDA) cognitive, language, gross motor, fine motor, positive and negative behaviour scores; visual acuity and contrast sensitivity scores and auditory evoked response potentials (ERP). Anthropometric z-scores, family care indicators (FCI) and sociodemographic variables were examined as covariates., Results: No significant differences were detected among the intervention arms for any INTER-NDA scores across domains, vision scores or ERP potentials. After adjusting for covariates, length-for-age z-score at 24 months (LAZ 24 ), socio-economic status, maternal education and FCI significantly predicted vision and INTER-NDA scores (R 2 =0.11-0.38, p<0.01)., Conclusions: Prenatal maternal nutrition supplementation was not associated with any neurodevelopmental outcomes at age 2 years. Maternal education, family environment and LAZ 24 predicted ECD. Interventions addressing multiple components of the nurturing care model may offer greatest impact on children's developmental potential., Trial Registration Number: NCT01883193., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)