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3. Assert Use and Defectiveness in Industrial Code

Author

Counsell, Steve, Hall, Tracy, Shippey, Thomas, Bowes, David, Tahir, Amjed, and MacDonell, Stephen

Subjects
Computer Science - Software Engineering
Abstract

The use of asserts in code has received increasing attention in the software engineering community in the past few years, even though it has been a recognized programming construct for many decades. A previous empirical study by Casalnuovo showed that methods containing asserts had fewer defects than those that did not. In this paper, we analyze the test classes of two industrial telecom Java systems to lend support to, or refute that finding. We also analyze the physical position of asserts in methods to determine if there is a relationship between assert placement and method defect-proneness. Finally, we explore the role of test method size and the relationship it has with asserts. In terms of the previous study by Casalnuovo, we found only limited evidence to support the earlier results. We did however find that defective methods with one assert tended to be located at significantly lower levels of the class position-wise than non-defective methods. Finally, method size seemed to correlate strongly with asserts, but surprisingly less so when we excluded methods with just one assert. The work described highlights the need for more studies into this aspect of code, one which has strong links with code comprehension., Comment: Conference paper, 5 pages, 2 figures, 3 tables

Published
2021
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4. Velar fronting in German dialects

Author

Hall, Tracy Alan

Subjects
Language Arts & Disciplines, Linguistics, thema EDItEUR::C Language and Linguistics::CF Linguistics
Abstract

Velar Fronting (VF) is the name for any synchronic or diachronic phonological process shifting the velar place of articulation to the palatal region of the vocal tract. A well-known case of VF in Standard German is the rule specifying that the fricative [x] assimilates to [ç] after front segments. VF also refers to the change from velar sounds like [ɣ k g ŋ] to palatals ([ʝ c ɟ ɲ]). The book provides a thorough investigation of VF in German dialects: Data are drawn from over 300 original sources for varieties that are (or were) spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and other countries. VF differs geographically along three parameters: (A) triggers, (B) targets, and (C) outputs. VF triggers (=A) are typically defined according to vowel height: In some systems VF is induced only by high front vowels, in others by high and mid front vowels, and in yet others by high, mid, and low front vowels. Some varieties treat consonants ([r l n]) as triggers, while others do not. VF can be nonassimilatory, in which case the rule applies even in the context of back segments. In many varieties of German, VF targets (=B) consist of the two fricatives [x ɣ], but in other dialects the targets comprise [x] but not [ɣ]. In some places, VF affects not only [x ɣ], but also velar stops and the velar nasal. The output of VF (=C) is typically palatal [ç] (given the input [x]), but in many other places it is the alveolopalatal [ɕ]. A major theme is the way in which VF interacts with synchronic and diachronic changes creating or eliminating structures which can potentially undergo it or trigger it. In many dialects the relationship between velars ([x]) and palatals ([ҫ]) is transparent because velars only occur in the back vowel context and palatals only when adjacent to front sounds. In that type of system, independent processes can either feed VF (by creating additional structures which the latter can undergo), or they can bleed it (by eliminating potential structures to which VF could apply). In other dialects, VF is opaque. In one opaque system, both velars ([x]) and palatals ([ҫ]) surface in the context of front segments. Thus, in addition to expected front vowel plus palatal sequences ([…iç…]), there are also unexpected ones consisting of front vowel plus velar ([…ix…]). In a second type of opaque system, velars and palatals are found in the context of back segments; hence, expected sequences such as […iç…] occur in addition to unexpected ones like […ɑç…].

Published
2022
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6. Using Machine Learning to Recognise Novice and Expert Programmers

Author

Lee, Chi Hong, Hall, Tracy, Goos, Gerhard, Founding Editor, Hartmanis, Juris, Founding Editor, Bertino, Elisa, Editorial Board Member, Gao, Wen, Editorial Board Member, Steffen, Bernhard, Editorial Board Member, Woeginger, Gerhard, Editorial Board Member, Yung, Moti, Editorial Board Member, Ardito, Luca, editor, Jedlitschka, Andreas, editor, Morisio, Maurizio, editor, and Torchiano, Marco, editor

Published
2021
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8. Expected values of parameters associated with the minimum rank of a graph

Author

Hall, Tracy, Hogben, Leslie, Martin, Ryan R., and Shader, Bryan

Subjects
Mathematics - Combinatorics, 05C50, 05C80, 15A03
Abstract

We investigate the expected value of various graph parameters associated with the minimum rank of a graph, including minimum rank/maximum nullity and related Colin de Verdi\`ere-type parameters. Let $G(v,p)$ denote the usual Erd\H{o}s-R\'enyi random graph on $v$ vertices with edge probability $p$. We obtain bounds for the expected value of the random variables ${\rm mr}(G(v,p))$, ${\rm M}(G(v,p))$, $\nu(G(v,p))$ and $\xi(G(v,p))$, which yield bounds on the average values of these parameters over all labeled graphs of order $v$., Comment: 17 pages, 2 figures

Published
2016
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11. The Impact of Hard and Easy Negative Training Data on Vulnerability Prediction Performance

Author

Debeyan, Fahad, Madeyski, Lech, Hall, Tracy, Bowes, David, Debeyan, Fahad, Madeyski, Lech, Hall, Tracy, and Bowes, David

Abstract

Vulnerability prediction models have been shown to perform poorly in the real world. We examine how the composition of negative training data influences vulnerability prediction model performance. Inspired by other disciplines (e.g. image processing), we focus on whether distinguishing between negative training data that is ‘easy’ to recognise from positive data (very different from positive data) and negative training data that is ‘hard’ to recognise from positive data (very similar to positive data) impacts on vulnerability prediction performance. We use a range of popular machine learning algorithms, including deep learning, to build models based on vulnerability patch data curated by Reis and Abreu, as well as the MSR dataset. Our results suggest that models trained on higher ratios of easy negatives perform better, plateauing at 15 easy negatives per positive instance. We also report that different ML algorithms work better based on the negative sample used. Overall, we found that the negative sampling approach used significantly impacts model performance, potentially leading to overly optimistic results. The ratio of ‘easy’ versus ‘hard’ negative training data should be explicitly considered when building vulnerability prediction models for the real world.

Published
2024

22. Let's Talk With Developers, Not About Developers:A Review of Automatic Program Repair Research

Author

Winter, Emily, Nowack, Vesna, Bowes, David, Counsell, Steve, Hall, Tracy, Haraldsson, Saemundur, Woodward, John, Winter, Emily, Nowack, Vesna, Bowes, David, Counsell, Steve, Hall, Tracy, Haraldsson, Saemundur, and Woodward, John

Abstract

Automatic program repair (APR) offers significant potential for automating some coding tasks. Using APR could reduce the high costs historically associated with fixing code faults and deliver significant benefits to software engineering. Adopting APR could also have profound implications for software developers daily activities, transforming their work practices. To realise the benefits of APR it is vital that we consider how developers feel about APR and the impact APR may have on developers' work. Developing APR tools without consideration of the developer is likely to undermine the success of APR deployment. In this paper, we critically review how developers are considered in APR research by analysing how human factors are treated in 260 studies from Monperrus's Living Review of APR. Over half of the 260 studies in our review were motivated by a problem faced by developers (e.g., the difficulty associated with fixing faults). Despite these human-oriented motivations, fewer than 7% of the 260 studies included a human study. We looked in detail at these human studies and found their quality mixed (for example, one human study was based on input from only one developer). Our results suggest that software developers are often talked about in APR studies, but are rarely talked with. A more comprehensive and reliable understanding of developer human factors in relation to APR is needed. Without this understanding, it will be difficult to develop APR tools and techniques which integrate effectively into developers' workflows. We recommend a future research agenda to advance the study of human factors in APR.

Published
2023

23. How do developers really feel about bug fixing? : Directions for automatic program repair

Author

Winter, Emily, Bowes, David, Counsell, Steve, Hall, Tracy, Haraldsson, Saemundur, Nowack, Vesna, Woodward, John, Winter, Emily, Bowes, David, Counsell, Steve, Hall, Tracy, Haraldsson, Saemundur, Nowack, Vesna, and Woodward, John

Abstract

Automatic program repair (APR) is a rapidly advancing field of software engineering that aims to supplement or replace manual bug fixing with an automated tool. For APR to be successfully adopted in industry, it is vital that APR tools respond to developer needs and preferences. However, very little research has considered developers' general attitudes to APR or developers' current bug fixing practices (the activity APR aims to replace). This article responds to this gap by reporting on a survey of 386 software developers about their bug finding and fixing practices and experiences, and their instinctive attitudes towards APR. We find that bug finding and fixing is not necessarily as onerous for developers as has often been suggested, being rated as more satisfying than developers' general work. The fact that developers derive satisfaction and benefit from bug fixing indicates that APR adoption is not as simple as APR replacing an unwanted activity. When it comes to potential APR approaches, we find a strong preference for developers being kept in the loop (for example, choosing between different fixes or validating fixes) as opposed to a fully automated process. This suggests that advances in APR should be careful to consider the agency of the developer, as well as what information is presented to developers alongside fixes. It also indicates that there are key barriers related to trust that would need to be overcome for full scale APR adoption, supported by the fact that even those developers who stated that they were positive about APR listed several caveats and concerns. We find very few statistically significant relationships between particular demographic variables (for example, developer experience, age, education) and key attitudinal variables, suggesting that developers' instinctive attitudes towards APR are little influenced by experience level but are held widely across the developer community.

Published
2023

24. The critical success factors of quality assurance and measurement practice in the software industry

Author

Hall, Tracy

Subjects
005, QA76 Computer software
Abstract

In this thesis I analyse how QA and measurement programmes are implemented in the software industry. My thesis is that, contrary to popular belief, how companies implement QA and measurement is as important to the ultimate success of a programme as what QA and measurement tools and techniques are implemented. I have combined input from over 300 software developers and managers in 26 different companies, with the analysis of all the relevant publicly available information on companies' experiences to produce a definitive study into implementing QA and measurement in the software industry. In this study I: • identify those QA and measurement practices considered to be state-of-the-art; • quantify the penetration of state-of-the-art practices; • report on the state-of-the-practice; • assess the effectiveness of the state-of-the-practice; • present guidelines for improved practice. I tested a variety of hypotheses about implementing QA and measurement programmes. My key findings about these hypotheses include: • Some companies have a large gap between what is officially said to be implemented and what is actually implemented. • Practitioners had a significant impact on the success of programmes. Furthermore, I confirmed my hypotheses about managers and developers having different attitudes to QA and measurement. However, I was unable to find convincing evidence to confirm that the demographics of practitioners affected their attitudes. • Many of my hypotheses about the implementation process were confirmed. In particular I found that doing background research was related to success, but that very few companies did research. However, I was unable to find convincing evidence to confirm the importance of feedback to practitioners. Overall my study reveals that the quality of the implementation process across the software industry is, in practice, very poor. Indeed, I show that the gap between state-of-the-art and state-of-the practice is large. I conclude that until the software industry puts as much effort into developing strategies for implementing QA and measurement as it does into developing tools and techniques, then effective and optimised programmes will remain rare.

Published
1998

25. Instruction on the Go: Reaching out to Students from the Academic Library

Author

Moorefield-Lang, Heather and Hall, Tracy

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to describe how a series of one-shot or single class library instruction webinars were created for on-campus and distance education students at Virginia Tech, a land grant institution in rural southwestern Virginia. Virginia Tech's distance learning department on campus trained in Centra 7.6 software and the lead librarian collaborated with peer librarians to offer a wide range of instructional sessions. In this study, interviews were conducted one-on-one with five webinar participants at Virginia Tech. Interviews were digitally audio-taped and transcribed. These interviews were used to gain feedback and information regarding the library-based webinars. Results were organized into thematic codes using NVivo 10 software. Results showed strong interest in the library webinars, especially in the playback or archiving features and interactivity.

Published
2015
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30. Velar fronting in German dialects: A study in synchronic and diachronic phonology

Author

Hall, Tracy Alan

Subjects
400 Sprache::410 Linguistik::410 Linguistik, Velar Fronting (VF), diachronic phonological process, synchronic phonological process
Abstract

Velar Fronting is the cover term referring to any phonological process shifting the primary place of articulation of a velar sound to the palatal region of the vocal tract. The most well-known case of velar fronting in the German language is the rule specifying that the fricative [x] assimilates to the corresponding palatal [ç] in the context after front segments. Velar fronting also refers to the process whereby [x] is pronounced as the alveolopalatal (sibilant) fricative [ɕ], as well as the change from velar sounds like [ɣ k g ŋ] to the corresponding palatals ([ʝ c ɟ ɲ]). Velar fronting can involve either the diachronic fronting of a historical velar or the synchronic realization of an underlying velar as fronted (palatal). The book offers an in-depth investigation of velar fronting in German dialects. Data are drawn from over 300 original sources for regional varieties of German spanning the last 160 years. The dialects are (or were) spoken in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland as well as neighboring countries. It is demonstrated that velar fronting differs geographically along three parameters: (A) triggers, (B) targets, and (C) outputs. Velar fronting triggers (=A) are defined according to the height dimension: In some systems the sounds inducing velar fronting comprise only high front vowels, in others the triggers consist of high and mid front vowels but not the low front vowels, and in yet others it is all front vowels that trigger fronting. In a similar fashion, some varieties treat coronal sonorant consonants ([r l n]) as velar fronting triggers, while others do not. A surprising finding is that velar fronting can also be nonassimilatory; hence, some areas illustrate the change of original velars to palatals in the context of front and back segments. In many varieties of German, the set of target sounds for velar fronting (=B) consists of all and only velar fricatives ([x] and [ɣ]), but in other dialects those targets consist solely of [x] but not [ɣ]. In some places, velar fronting affects not only [x] and [ɣ], but also velar stops and the velar nasal. The output of velar fronting (=C) in most varieties of German is palatal [ç] (given the input [x]), but in many other places it is the alveolopalatal (sibilant) [ɕ]. A major theme of the book is the way in which velar fronting interacts with synchronic and diachronic changes creating or eliminating structures which can potentially undergo it or trigger it. In many dialects the relationship between velars ([x]) and palatals ([ҫ]) is transparent in the sense that velars only occur in the back vowel context and palatals only when adjacent to front sounds. In that type of system, independent processes can either feed velar fronting (by creating additional structures which the latter can undergo), or they can bleed it (by eliminating potential structures to which velar fronting could apply). In other dialects, velar fronting can be opaque. Two types of opacity are documented. In the first type, velars ([x]) and palatals ([ҫ]) both occur in the context of front segments. Thus, in addition to expected front vowel plus palatal sequences ([…iç…]), there are also unexpected ones consisting of front vowel plus velar ([…ix…]). In the second type, velars and palatals both occur in the context of back segments; hence, expected sequences such as […iç…] occur in addition to unexpected ones like […ɑç…]. In the first type of system, sequences like […ix…] illustrate the underapplication of velar fronting, and in the second system sequences like […ɑç,,,] document the overapplication of that process.

Published
2022
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32. Towards developer-centered automatic program repair: findings from Bloomberg

Author

Winter, Emily Rowan, primary, Nowack, Vesna, additional, Bowes, David, additional, Counsell, Steve, additional, Hall, Tracy, additional, Haraldsson, Sæmundur, additional, Woodward, John, additional, Kirbas, Serkan, additional, Windels, Etienne, additional, McBello, Olayori, additional, Atakishiyev, Abdurahman, additional, Kells, Kevin, additional, and Pagano, Matthew, additional

Published
2022
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33. Evaluating Three Approaches to Extracting Fault Data from Software Change Repositories

Author

Hall, Tracy, Bowes, David, Liebchen, Gernot, Wernick, Paul, Hutchison, David, editor, Kanade, Takeo, editor, Kittler, Josef, editor, Kleinberg, Jon M., editor, Mattern, Friedemann, editor, Mitchell, John C., editor, Naor, Moni, editor, Nierstrasz, Oscar, editor, Pandu Rangan, C., editor, Steffen, Bernhard, editor, Sudan, Madhu, editor, Terzopoulos, Demetri, editor, Tygar, Doug, editor, Vardi, Moshe Y., editor, Weikum, Gerhard, editor, Ali Babar, M., editor, Vierimaa, Matias, editor, and Oivo, Markku, editor

Published
2010
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